Pressure as persuasion technique

Pressure as persuasion technique

Pressure influence techniques involve coercion or intimidation. People comply with
these techniques to avoid the negative consequences of not doing so. Sometimes
those negative consequences are clearly stated (i.e., coercion), other times they’re
implied (i.e., intimidation). Some examples of the range of negative consequences
that individuals could use include - quitting and leaving someone in a bind, shouting at
someone, requiring overtime, or embarrassing them publicly. The advantage of
pressure is that it can get quick compliance, but that is about all that can be said in
defense of pressure. Pressure tends to create insecurity, resentment, and distrust. It
should be used as a last resort.

• Using Pressure
• To use pressure effectively, individuals must use it sparingly. Furthermore,
they must stay within organizational policies and the bounds of what is
reasonable. For instance, it is reasonable to threaten to suspend a
member who repeatedly violates norms, but unreasonable to threaten
to terminate someone the first time he or she misses a meeting. Finally,
they have to follow through with the consequences if they do not gain
compliance. If they do not deliver the consequences, they will have less
credibility when using coercion in the future.

• Resisting Pressure
• Build the power base. In the famous words of British historian, Lord Acton,
“Power corrupts. Absolute power corrupts absolutely.” Perhaps he
exaggerated, but most of the individuals have been in situations where people
who have had a lot of power over them have treated them in insensitive and
selfish ways. By building their own power base, they reduce the chances of
a powerful person pressuring them.

In summary, reason, exchange, and pressure are used to influence others in
organizations. Whenever individuals can use the reason strategy to influence others,
they probably should. Exchange can also be effective, and it is particularly useful when
parties have different values and priorities. Pressure can be effective too, but it should
be practiced with utmost care.

Persuasion Techniques - Exchange

Persuasion Techniques - Exchange

Exchange influence techniques include all the ways to get people to do things by
engaging in some sort of trade. Putting an incentive on a certain goal and offering a
bonus for a particular assignment are examples of exchange techniques. Ingratiation
is a more subtle and potentially manipulative way to use an exchange to influence
others. Ingratiation is giving gifts or performing favours to foster a sense of
indebtedness in another party. Later, when that party is wanted to do something again,
that sense of indebtedness can either consciously or unconsciously influence their
decision.

Exchange works even when the party individuals  are trying to influence does not have
the same values and priorities that they do. Exchange techniques answer the “What’s
in it for me?” question. Of course, the problem is that individuals have to give something
to the other party, such as some form of reward or incentive. Furthermore, once they
start using incentives to get compliance, people will expect them to offer them
inducements when they try to influence them in the future. A drawback specific to the
ingratiation strategy is that it can actually cause the opposite of the intended effect if
the plan becomes obvious, because people resent being manipulated.

• Using Exchange

• Favors or incentives - To overtly influence others with exchange, individuals
must clearly explain exactly what they have to offer and what they want to
receive in return. Any ambiguity in the offer or request could cause the other
party to feel cheated later. It can also help to emphasize “it’s a one time
offer” so that the party they are trying to influence will not always expect them
to dangle a carrot in front of them when they want their help.
Ingratiation - To influence others using ingratiation, individuals have to be subtle. Overt
attempts at ingratiating themselves with others often backfire because people resent
being manipulated. They can ingratiate themselves with others by spontaneously doing
favours for them or giving them gifts. Even friendship and compliments can be offered
for the purpose of ingratiation. Colloquial terms for this are “brown nosing” and “sucking
up.”

• Resisting Exchange

• Scrutinize gifts and favors.individuals should consider the motives of
people who give them gifts and do favours for them. Not that gifts and favors
are always manipulative, but they should decline gifts from people who may
be using them to bias their decision-making.

• Reject manipulative bargaining tactics. When individuals notice that a
party they are bargaining with is using manipulative tactics such as rushing
them into an agreement or trying to change terms they have already agreed
upon, they should call attention to the manipulation, explain why they do not
want to bargain that way, and suggest a different approach to bargaining.

• Stop bargaining. If individuals  do not approve of someone’s bargaining
style, they can refuse to bargain with him or her. Unless they are willing to walk away from negotiations, the other party has no leverage over them.

Persuasion Techniques

Persuasion Techniques

One cannot be an effective  if one fails to influence others – especially the
colleagues and subordinates. Scott Williams (“Leader Letters”) says: “…building power
bases should not be a person’s primary focus, but individuals have to have at least
some form of power to be able to do their jobs. The same principle applies to influence
(which is the exercise of power); influencing others does not prove that a person is
effective, but failure to influence others is often the cause of individual ineffectiveness.”
Choosing the right influence strategy is the key to managing effectively. Scott Williams
advocates the three following techniques of persuasion and the choice of the specific
techniques by individuals depend on their values, priorities and contextual demands.

Using Reason
• Again, reason is the best form of influence for most situations. When
presenting the reasons why someone is asked to comply with a request or
accept a suggestion, Individuals should consider how their request or
suggestion pertains to the personal values of the person they are trying to
influence. In the ideal situation, the person they are trying to influence has
internalized the organization’s values. If so, anything they ask him/her to do
that is consistent with the organization’s values will be something he/she
personally wants to do.

• Resisting Reason
• Present alternative reasoning. When someone is trying to use reason to
get us to do something, people are likely to respond in one of two ways: (1)
cooperate because the reasoning is sound, or (2) tactfully explain why they
do not think it would be wise for them to cooperate. In other words, reason
can be resisted with counter-reasoning. People may need to call attention
to the bigger picture or the flaw in the logic.

• Defend your rights. Some people become slaves to their desire to be
helpful to others. Being cooperative and a “team player” is great, but they
should remember that they have rights. They should not sacrifice their
priorities in order to help others. They have a right not to help others who
are becoming overly dependent on their help. They have a right to use this
free time to pursue innovative projects. They have a right to work a
reasonable number of hours. Sometimes, they have to assertively stand up
for their rights. In pop-psych terms, “people pleasers” need to develop
“boundaries.”

• Firmly refuse. Sometimes people are a little overzealous in their efforts to
use reason to influence us. They have ideas to “sell” to us. And, like all
good salespeople, those zealots do not give up when we voice our objections
- they try to answer them. As long as they continue to present counterreasoning,
the debate will continue. Even in relationships that they would
like to keep harmonious, sometimes they need to firmly refuse a request
and firmly refuse to discuss it further.

Four Ways to Not to Persuade

Four Ways to Not to Persuade

According to Cialdini, when it comes to utilizing the principles of persuasion, there are
three different categories under which people fall - Bunglers, Smugglers, and Sleuths.

The “Bungler” is the individual who doesn’t understand how to use the most powerful
principles of influence and, consequently, fumbles away opportunities for beneficial
change.

The “Smuggler” is the person who understands these principles of influence perfectly
well, but who imports them illicitly into situations where they don’t naturally exist, thereby
producing gain that is one-sided and temporary.

The “Sleuth” on the other hand, uncovers the power principles that naturally reside in
the influence situation and brings them to the surface to the long-term advantage of
both parties

Cialdini says, it is only through the Sleuth’s approach that an influence agent or
persuader can bring about the desired change in others that is both effective and
ethical.


1. Don’t attempt an up-front hard sell. 
Providing a strong position at the start
of a persuasion effort gives potential opponents something to fight against.
One should present one’s position with finesse.

2. Don’t see compromise as surrender. 
People want to see the persuader is
flexible enough to respond to their concerns. Compromises can often lead to
better, more sustainable shared solutions.

3. Don’t think the secret to persuasion lies in presenting great arguments.
Arguments, per se, are only one part of the equation. Other factors that make
arguments compelling are the persuader’s credibility, her ability to create a
mutually beneficial frame for a position, connect to the right emotional level with
an audience, and communicate through vivid language.

4. Don’t assume persuasion is a one-shot effort.
 Persuasion involves listening,
testing a position, re framing it in a way that reflects input from the group,
re-testing, re framing incorporating compromises and trying again.

Governing Principles of Persuasion

Governing Principles of Persuasion

An important attribute of management is the ability to persuade others to accept ideas
and follow certain courses of action. Where senior individuals give directions,
intermediaries may be required to influence the behavior, thought process and actions
of others in order to comply with that direction. A  senior  level of success or failure
may be determined by his/her ability to influence people within his/her own home,
as well as those operating in society.

The six principles of influence that are used everywhere in society are discussed by
Dr. Robert Cialdini. While these are common principles that can be effective, ethical,
and lasting, they can also be used unethically, as by those leading totalist groups.
Compliance is behaviour that occurs only because it is requested, that is, getting what
one asks for. The Six Principles of Reciprocity are:

1. Reciprocity (give and take)
a. Obligation People are programmed from childhood to pay back those who
give them something. If someone gives a present for their birthday, they have to
give that person a gift for his birthday. If someone sends a Christmas card,
people feel that they must send them one. Those who only take are called
moochers, ingrates, parasites.

For example, the Hare Krishna Societies are mostly funded by contributions.
They give something like a book or flower, and then ask for money. People buy
their way out of the obligation. Some try to give back the flower, or throw it on
the ground in order to break freeb. Reciprocation of concessions
A person will start by asking for something very high, and then come down.
Compliance is very high in this situation.

2. Scarcity (if I can’t have it, I want it)
Something held in abundance is much less highly valued than something is scarce.
Deceptive groups use this, for example, by saying that this is the only way to salvation.
To a slightly less degree this is also done when the group claims to be the “best,” the
“closest to the will of God,” “God’s Green Berets,” the “fastest path to enlightenment,”
etc.

a. Exclusivity of information
Exclusive information is more prized, and more readily believed. A test of scarcity
showed that scarcity of commodities produced increased revenue, but the
exclusivity of the information about a future shortage produced a far greater
increase in revenue. It should be noted that the information must be true to
maintain the relationship of trust.

b. Rivalry for scarce items
Scarcity can be manipulated, especially by creating rivalry for it. In cults this can
apply to such things as leadership positions, praise from the leader and other
special favors.

3. AUTHORITY (if an expert says it, it must be true)
People automatically believe the expert or follow those in authority. This is true even if
the person is not and cannot be an authority, but is only perceived as such. They react
automatically, without thinking, because an “authority” says so. The most credible
authorities are both knowledgeable and trust worthya.

TRUST
One must be impartial, unbiased and honest. A shortcut to gaining trust is to
say something mildly contradictory to one’s own position. Then one will be seen
as impartial, willing to acknowledge the negative side of one’s own position,
and one will thus establish credibility.

b. MISPLACED TRUST
Trust can be established either by “smuggling” or by being honest and providing
the truth.

4. CONSISTENCY (I can’t back out now, nor do I need to)

a. Obtain a commitment
People become more certain after they invest in something—or make a
decision.

b. Start small and build
Start by getting a person to make a very small commitment, and then ask for increasingly
larger requests. The build-up can be slow, subtle and insidious. Once the commitment
is made, it is very hard to change.

5. CONSENSUS (everyone is doing it)

a. The actions of many others
People often look to see what other people are doing before they act. In
Singapore, a bus strike caused a run on a bank and its closure because the
people outside the bank waiting for the bus created the impression of a problem
with the bank.

b. The actions of similar others
“The more one sees others like him/her doing something, the more one does
what he/she does”

c. Rejection of Original Referent Group
If the original referent group is rejected, a person is susceptible to the coercion
and persuasion of the new group. This is one of techniques used by cults: reject
normal society, parents, and friends and substitute the cult.

6. LIKING (positive connections create liking)
a. Similarities
A person likes people who are like himself/herself.
b. Compliments, praise
People like to be complimented by others, whether the compliment is true or
false.
c. Cooperative efforts
Bonds form through cooperative efforts, whether natural and legitimate or unnatural
and manipulative.
These principles will be seen in any influence-setting situation. It is crucial to take a
psychological step back, away from the situation to ask oneself, “Why do I feel this
obligation to say yes to this person’s request [or to believe what this person is telling
me]?” Is a person just feeling obligated towards the other because the other person
gave him something; or because he or she seems to be an “authority”; or because the
person claims to have exclusive truth. Is it because he or she is “a nice person”; or
because all his friends signed up; or because one is already agreed to an earlier
request? Are these reasons, by themselves, sufficient to warrant a person going ahead
and saying yes? One has to make sure that there are legitimate reasons for going
forward.

Steps in Persuasion Process

Steps in Persuasion Process

Persuasion is an essential proficiency for all individuals. According to Professor Jay
Conger, “effective persuasion involves four distinct and essential steps.” 

1. Establish credibility - Credibility grows out of expertise and relationships. A persuader
needs strong emotional characteristics and integrity. The need to listen carefully to other
people’s suggestions and establish an environment in which they know their opinions are
valued. They should prepare by collecting data and information that both support and
contradict their arguments through – surveys, focus groups, interviews, sounding boards
with colleagues/experts and personal hunches.

2. Framing common goal with colleagues- Effective persuader must be adept at
describing the position in terms that illuminate the person’s point advantages that he/
she is trying to persuade. It is a process of identifying shared benefits. This requires
conversations to collect essential information by asking thoughtful questions. This
process will often prompt to alter the initial argument or include compromises.

Peter Sandman identifies four kinds of colleagues or public with varying levels of
‘involvement’ with a persuader’s issue of interest that managers should learn to cope:

• Fanatics: Persuader’s issue is their main interest aside from job and family.
They can not turn their interests.
• Browsers: Persuader’s issue is on their ‘worry list’, but way at the bottom.
• Attentive: Persuader’s issue is on his/her top-10 list.
• Inattentive: They do not know and they do not want to know.

3. Reinforce positions with vivid language and compelling evidence:

Persuasion requires presentation of evidence — strong data in multiple forms (stories,
graphs, images, metaphors and examples). Persuaders need to make positions come
alive by using vivid language that complements graphics.
In most cases, a rock-solid argument:

• Is logical and consistent with facts and experience
• Favorably addresses your audience’s interests
• Eliminates or neutralizes competing alternatives
• Recognizes and deals with office politics
• Receives endorsements from objective, authoritative third parties

4. Connecting emotionally with audiences: Good persuaders are aware of primacy
of emotions and are responsive to them. They know how to maintain a balance between
professionalism and their own emotional commitment to the position they are
advocating. Their connection to their audience demonstrates both intellectual and
emotional commitment to their position. Successful persuaders cultivate an accurate
sense of their audience’s emotional state, and they adjust their arguments accordingly.
Whatever their position, they must match their emotional fervour to their audience’s
ability to receive their message.

Proven Approaches for Strengthening Emotional Connection

• Go for the heart of the audience
• Use highly descriptive and involving stories and illustrations
• Use visuals to illustrate your points
• Show how the issue has touched you personally

Persuasion - Defence/ Resistance Tactics

Persuasion - Defence/ Resistance Tactics

source - Marwell & Schmitt’s Taxonomy

Resistance to persuasion refers to the processes through which people prevent
persuasive messages from changing their attitudes. They include cognitive,
motivational as well as effective factors. Listed below are some of the defense tactics:


• Deflect - they could divert the issue to a lesser, side issue; or could “pass the
buck” to a lower official who has no real power.
• Delay - your opponent could make you think they are addressing the issue,
when nothing is really being done, for example, forming a “study commission”
that has no real power.
• Deny - your opponent may say your claims and your proposed solutions, or
both, are invalid.
• Discount - your opponent may try to minimize the importance of the problem or
question your legitimacy as an agent of change.
• Deceive - your opponent may deliberately try to make you and your group feel
like, they are taking meaningful action, when they in fact have not; they may
never have had any real intention to consider your issues.
• Divide - your opponent may sow the seeds of dissent into your group’s ranks,
and use a “Divide and conquer” strategy.
• Dulcify - your opponent may try to appease or pacify your group through offers
of jobs, services and other benefits.
• Discredit - your opponent may try to cast doubt on your group’s motives and
methods.
• Destroy - your opponents may try to de-stabilize or eliminate your group through
legal, economic, or scare tactics.
• Deal - your opponent may decide to avoid conflict by offering a deal, working
towards a mutually acceptable solution.
Surrender - the opposition may agree to your demands. If this is the case, you should
remember that the victory is not complete until the opposition follows through with its
promises.

Persuasion-Influencing Tactics

Persuasion-Influencing Tactics

source - Marwell & Schmitt’s Taxonomy

The following are  of 16 influence or persuasive tactics
that people employ to change beliefs, attitudes or behaviors of people who they interact
with.
1. Reward
a. I’ll reward you if you do it. “I’ll throw in a pair of speakers if you buy it
today.” “Thanks! I’ll make certain your manager knows how helpful you
were.”

2. Punishment
a. I’ll punish you if you don’t do it. “If you don’t buy it today, I won’t be able to
offer you this special incentive price again.” “If I can’t get it at that price
tomorrow, then I’ll take my business elsewhere.”

3. Positive Expertise
a. Speaking as an authority on the subject, I can tell you that rewards will
occur if you do X, because of the nature of reality. “If you start working out
at our gym regularly, you’ll find that people are more attracted to you
physically.”

4. Negative Expertise
a. Speaking as an authority on the subject, “I can tell you that punishments
will occur if you do Y, because of the nature of reality”. “If you don’t buy it
today, you may never get another chance - our stock is almost sold out.”

5. Liking, Ingratiation
a. To get the prospect into a good frame of mind, ”Gosh you look nice today.
I just love that hat you’re wearing! Should we order dessert before we
look over the contracts?”

6. Gifting, Pre-giving
a. It means giving something as a gift, before requesting for compliance.
The idea is that the target will feel the need to reciprocate later. “Here’s
a little something we thought you’d like. Now about those contracts . . .”

7. Debt
a. Recalling past favors like, “After all I’ve done for you! Come on—this
time it’s me who needs the favor.”

8. Aversive Stimulation
a. Continuous punishment and the cessation of punishment are contingent
on compliance. “I’m going to play my classical music at full volume if you
insist on playing your rock music at full volume. When you turn yours down,
I’ll turn mine down.”

9. Moral Appeal
a. This tactic entails finding common moral ground, and then using the moral
commitments of a person to obtain compliance. “You believe that women
should get equal pay for equal work, don’t you? You don’t believe that
men are better than women, do you? Then you ought to sign this petition!
It’s the right thing to do.”

10.Positive Self-feeling
a. You’ll feel better if you X. “If you join our club today, you’ll feel better about
yourself because you’ll know that you’re improving every day.”

11. Negative Self-feeling
a. You’ll feel bad if you Y. “If you don’t return it to him and apologize, you’ll
find it hard to live with yourself.”

12.Positive Altercasting
a. Good people do X. “Smart people tend to sign up for the year in advance,
because that’s how they can get the best weekly rate.”

13.Negative Altercasting
a. Only a bad person would do Y. “You’re not like those bad sports that whine
and complain when they lose a game.”

14.Altruism
a. Do me a favor or “do-me-a-favor”. “I really need this photocopied right
away, can you help me out?” (An extremely common influence tactic and
is in wide use among friends and acquaintances).

15.Positive Esteem of Others
a. Other people will think more highly of you if you X. “People respect a
man who drives a Mercedes.”

16.Negative Esteem of Others
a. Other people will think worse of you if you Y. “You don’t want people
thinking that you’re a drug-head loser, do you?”

Two Routes to Persuasion

Two Routes to Persuasion

There are two routes leading to persuasion: Central Route and Peripherial Route.

1. Central Route occurs when the attitude of an audience is changed because of
thoughtful consideration of the message. The central route to persuasion is sought
when the receiver has high-involvement information processing—whether the person
ponders the content and logic of message. It involves a more logical, thought-out process
and generates a number of cognitive responses to the communication. It leads
to more enduring attitudinal change.
• If the argument is compelling à persuasion à accept job
• If not compelling à persuasion won’t occur à stay with the job you have

2. Peripheral Route involves persuasion via incidental cues — e.g. speaker’s attractiveness,
expertise, pictures, sounds, etc. It tends to appeal to emotions rather than
cognitions. It triggers temporary liking or acceptance and works best for audiences
who are neither analytical nor involved with the issue. The peripheral route to persuasion
is used when the receiver has low-involvement information processing — persuasion
depends on non-message factors; for example, if the message-receiver thinks:
“That speech has a lot of statistics in it, so I have positive feelings about the message.”
Whether the person uses the central or peripheral route depends on a large variety of
factors. Here, five factors have been mentioned:

a. An individual receiving the message (viewing/hearing the message) must be able
to understand the message to use the central route. Comprehension of the message
would include being familiar with all of the terms used in the message (for example,
high tech terminology), being able to learn new concepts that are presented, and being able to relate experiences and knowledge gathered in the past to the new information
being presented.

b. Another factor that affects the central route to persuasion is the personality of the
audience member. Is the person willing to think about the message in detail? Some
people enjoy engaging in complex cognitive activities, and other people are less willing
or able to contemplate the message. And, is the information presented relevant
enough to the people that they would engage in critical thinking?

For example, a person who does not wear contact lenses is not likely to waste his or
her time thinking thoroughly about a message for contact lens solution and a person
who does not want a new car might not think deeply about the merits of a new model of
car.

c. The peripheral route is affected by whether or not the message falls into a person’s
latitude of acceptance or rejection (whether or not the person has already made up his
or her mind on the subject).

For example, a public service message advocating a pro-choice view on the use of
ultrasonography method primarily for determing the position and health of a foetus
rather than sex-determination which leads to abortion of female fetuses/ or the Act that
was passed in Goa regarding the HIVtest compulsorily to be taken by the bride and
the bridegroom before marriage would not create an attitude shift; it also would not
create a change in the views of the individual who already agrees with the pro-choice
position. If message receivers are stable in their conceptions, they will not need to
analyze the new messages thoroughly.

d. Other factors that can influence peripheral processing of an audience are basic
cues, such as food or pain, in the message. For example, an individual with a headache
might see an ad for Anacin (Zandu balm), and just go buy it without critically
evaluating the message content. Message-recipients are also peripherally affected
by the source of the message. Is the speaker attractive? Is the speaker credible?

e. In situations in which an audience uses the peripheral route in attitude change, it
may not matter whether or not any actual information is provided.
Now having analysed the factors that leads one to take a central or peripheral route,
let us find the “tactics” that are adopted in the process. And the following chapter unfolds
the “tactics” and its complexities in detail.

Functions of Persuasion

Functions of Persuasion

The function or purpose of persuasion will depend on how strongly the audience holds
an attitude. In relation to the persuader’s opinion, audience may have attitudes that fall
anywhere on a continuum as below.

-2 ————- -1 ————- 0 ————- +1 ————— +2
-2 = strongly opposed, -1 = moderately opposed 0 = neutral or undecided +1 = moderately
in favor, +2 = strongly in favor

The persuader needs to select a purpose that is realistic for his/her audience. Five
general purposes of persuasion are listed below.

• Create uncertainty. When an audience is strongly opposed to the
persuader’s view, the best that may be possible for the persuader is to make
the audience a little less certain they are right, a little less comfortable with
their current attitude.

• Reduce resistance. If the audience is moderately opposed to the
persuader’s position but not closed-minded, the persuader may be able to
reduce opposition to his/her view and move the audience toward neutrality.
While not expecting a reversal of views this goal asks the audience to recognize
the validity of opinions different from their own.

• Change attitude. If the audience is not committed, especially strongly, to
any attitude on the topic this goal is appropriate.

• Amplify attitude. If the audience is already moderately favorable to the
persuader’s view, he/she can design a message which will reinforce current
attitudes in the audience, help the audience resist appeals from opponents,
and (perhaps) motivate the members of the audience to become strongly
committed to his/her position.

• Gain behavior. When an audience strongly favors the persuader’s position,
the logical goal is to get them to act on their convictions.

The Rhetoric of Persuasion-Logos

The Rhetoric of Persuasion-Logos

Logos, or appeal through reasoning, was considered the most important
appeal by Aristotle. It refers to the internal consistency of the message—the clarity of
the claim, the logic of its reasons, and the effectiveness of its supporting evidence.
The impact of logos on an audience is sometimes called the argument’s logical appeal.
Basically, a logos-based argument exhibits geometric characteristics, such as:

• If A = B
• And B=C
• Then A=C

However, Tim Bryce warns that the danger with rhetoric of logos is “developing a weak
or convoluted argument which is perceived as either illogical or is difficult for the
audience to grasp.” For example:

• Idolizers are people.
• Indians are people.
• Therefore, all Indians are idolizers.

Logos is vital to the credibility of one’s argument which should be carefully constructed
with basic building blocks of common sense. So logical discourse is an effective way
of communicating thoughts, but it is important to know the audience before presenting
such ideas.
Adler says: “Reasons and arguments may be used to reinforce the drive of the passions,
but reasons and arguments will have no force at all unless your listeners are already
disposed emotionally to move in the direction that your reasons and arguments try to
justify.” The concluding portion of Antony’s address is an illustration of effective blending
of pathos and logos.

“If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. You all do know this mantle: I
remember The first time ever Caesar put it on; ‘Twas on a summer’s evening,
in his tent, That day he overcame the Nervii: Look, in this place ran Cassius’
dagger through: Through this the well-beloved Brutus stabb’d; And as he pluck’d
his cursed steel away, Mark how the blood of Caesar follow’d it, As rushing out
of doors, to be resolved If Brutus so unkindly knock’d or no; For Brutus, as you
know, was Caesar’s angel: Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him!
This was the most unkindest cut of all; For when the noble Caesar saw him
stab, Ingratitude, more strong than traitors’ arms, Quite vanquish’d him: then
burst his mighty heart; And, in his mantle muffling up his face, Even at the base
of Pompey’s statue, Which all the while ran blood, great Caesar fell. O, what a
fall was there, my countrymen! Then I, and you, and all of us fell down, Whilst
bloody treason flourish’d over us.”

Seldom will anyone depend on any component of rhetoric – ethos, pathos or logos.
Separating the appeals is an artificial process. The three appeals work together in
persuasion .

However, just as using a single appeal is unlikely to persuade, neither is using
all three in equal measure. How much ethos, pathos or logos is added into the mix
depends on the speaker, the audience, the subject and the context.

The Rhetoric of Persuasion-Pathos

The Rhetoric of Persuasion-Pathos

Pathos (Greek for ‘suffering’ or ‘experience’) is an appeal based on emotion.
The intent is to motivate people to take action. Without effective use of pathos,
persuasion is unlikely to move people to action on any issue. Many rhetoricians, over
the centuries, have considered pathos the strongest of the appeals, though this view
of persuasion is rarely mentioned without a lament about the power of emotion to sway
the mind.

Perhaps the most common way of conveying a pathetic appeal is through narrative or
story, which can turn the abstractions of logic into something palpable and present.
The values, beliefs, and understandings of the communicator are implicit in the story
and conveyed imaginatively to the audience. Thus, pathos refers to both the emotional
and the imaginative impact of the message on an audience. It is the power with which
the communicator’s message moves the audience to decision or action.

Rhetoric of pathos “makes its appearance fairly early in Antony’s speech. Antony
reminds people of all the things that Caesar did for Rome, things from which they
benefited, and as he recounts these benefactions, he repeatedly asks them whether
they can believe that Caesar displayed self-seeking ambition rather than dedication
to the public good.”

In fact, extensive use of pathos-driven speeches have been made by teachers,
managers, and political leaders. Tim Bryce (“Art of Persuasion”) quotes Franklin
Roosevelt’s “fireside chats” which gave moral strength to the American public during
the Great Depression and World War II as an example.

However, the only problem with the rhetoric of pathos is that that it is not necessarily
based on truth. Bryce illustrates the presence of falsity in pathos by citing the example
of Adolph Hitler who was able to motivate the German people to develop a military
state. Hitler’s discourse was often laced with lies. Also, advertising often substitutes
facade for substance and as such, the public should exercise “caveat emptor” (let the
buyer beware). Apart from this, pathos is a great way to get one’s point across.

The Rhetoric of Persuasion

The Rhetoric of Persuasion

The goal of all communication is to persuade the audience. To some it comes easily,
to others it is difficult to assimilate. According to the Greek Philosopher Aristotle,
persuasion could be brought about by the speaker’s use of three modes of “rhetoric” –
Ethos, Pathos and Logos.

Ethos: Ethos (Greek for ‘character’) in rhetoric is the demonstration of a
communicator’s character and/or credentials. The persuasion lies in the power and
authority of the speaker. Aristotle considered it the most important attribute of any
communication. The audience has to find the writer or speaker’s character credible
and trustworthy — otherwise, anything said from that point will not be persuasive.
Mortimer Adler (“Art of Persuasion”) draws attention to the classic illustrations of the
role of ethos in persuasion in the speeches made by Brutus and Mark Antony in
Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar.

In Julius Caesar, Julius Caesar, the protagonist of the play, had been assassinated.
The citizens of Rome, gathered near his dead body in the forum, grieving for their loss,
angrily demand an accounting. Brutus, one of the conspirators who took part in the
assassination, mounted the rostrum to address them:

“Romans, countrymen and lovers! Hear me for my cause, and be silent, that you
may hear: believe me for mine honour, and have respect to mine honour, that
you may believe: censure me in your wisdom, and awake your senses, that you
may the better judge. If there be any in this assembly, any dear friend of Caesar’s,
to him I say, that Brutus’ love to Caesar was no less than his. If then that friend
demand why Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my answer: Not that I loved
Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. Had you rather Caesar were living
and die all slaves, than that Caesar were dead, to live all free men?
As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he
was valiant, I honor him: but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. There is tears for
his love; joy for his fortune; honor for his valor; and death for his ambition. Who
is here so base that would be a bondman? If any, speak; for him have I offended.
Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If any, speak; for him have I
offended. Who is here so vile that will not love his country? If any, speak; for him
have I offended. I pause for a reply.”

The citizens replied in unison: “None, Brutus, none.” Then, satisfied that he had
persuaded them that the assassination was justified, Brutus yielded his place to Mark
Antony. Before Antony can speak, the populace, completely won — or sold — by Brutus,
showerered him with acclaim and proclaim the public honors they wish to bestow upon
him in dead Caesar’s place. Brutus quietened them and implored them to listen to
Antony, to whom he had granted permission to speak. Thus introduced, Antony
addressed them:

“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; I come to bury Caesar, not
to praise him. The evil that men do lives after them; The good is oft interred with
their bones; So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus hath told you Caesar
was ambitious; If it were so, it was a grievous fault, And grievously hath Caesar
answered it. Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest — For Brutus is an
honorable man; So are they all, all honorable men — Come I to speak in
Caesar’s funeral. He was my friend, faithful and just to me: But Brutus says he
was ambitious; And Brutus is an honorable man. He hath brought many captives
home to Rome, Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill: Did this in Caesar
seem ambitious?

When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept: Ambition should be made of
sterner stuff: Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honorable
man. You all did see that on the Lupercal I thrice presented him a kingly crown,
which he did thrice refuse: was this ambition? Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;
And, sure, he is an honorable man.

I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, but here I am to speak what I do
know. You all did love him once, not without cause: What cause withholds you
then to mourn for him? O judgement! Thou art fled to brutish beasts, And men
have lost their reason. Bear with me; my heart is in the coffin there with Caesar
And I must pause till it come back to me.”

The short speech of Brutus mainly illustrates the role of ethos, as does the somewhat
longer opening portion of Antony’s address. Practical persuasion is always selling
and compelling — whether it is in the market place or in the political forum, across the
counter or in a legislative chamber, in a commercial transaction or in a campaign for
public office, in the advertisement of a product or in an appeal for a public cause or a
political candidate.

Persuasiveness: A Self-Test

Persuasiveness: A Self-Test

(Source: All About Communication, International.)

To what extent do you do the following things when you urgently want to persuade
somebody of something and he/she appears resistant? (Consider your behavior both
at work and in your private life.) Use the following scale:
0= never 1=sometimes 2=often or always
1. Repeat points___
2. Get louder___
3. Use more forceful language___
4. Talk at great length___
5. Become insulting___
6. Spell out the logic of your arguments___
7. Interrupt objections or explanations of the other person ___
8. Immediately argue against objections ___
9. Accuse the other person of improper motives for resisting or disagreeing ___
10. Ask loaded (rhetorical) questions (“Don’t you think…,” “Why would anybody…?”
etc.)_
11. Pout, look hurt or exasperated, etc.___
12. Bring up past (related or vaguely related) incidents or non-compliance___
13. Empathize or sympathize (“I can see what you mean…,I’d feel the same if I were
in your position.’’) etc. ___
14. Listen to each point or objection___
15. Speak enthusiastically, but without “railroading” or overwhelming the listener ___
16. Watch your own body language to avoid signals of aggression or wimpiness
17. Be brief in making your points and stop often to check for concurrence with your
listeners ___
18. Watch the other person’s body language for signs of disagreement___
19. Ask focused questions aimed at:
- unearthing all obstacles or objections, including those, the other person is
trying to hold back for various reasons___
- finding conditions under which agreement would be possible___

Evaluation: If you have many ratings of 1 or 2 for items 1-12, you’ll benefit greatly
from working on your persuasion skills and attitudes. If your 1 and 2 ratings occur
more in items 13-19, you have sound habits that should give you a good chance of
persuading people to your point of view.

Persuasion and Attitude Change

Persuasion and Attitude Change

Formation and change of attitude are not two separate things - they are interwoven.
People are always adopting, modifying or relinquishing attitudes to fit their everchanging
needs and interests. Acceptance of new attitudes depends on who is the
communicator, how the communication is presented, how the communication is
perceived by the message receiver, the credibility of the communicator, and the
conditions under which the knowledge was received.

Attitudes change when:

1. A person receives new information from others or media - Cognitive change
2. Through direct experience with the attitude object - Affective change
Force a person to behave in a way different than normal - Behavioral change
Attitudes change, based on how a person perceives the communication and the
communicator. Less committed people will change ideas more frequently. Attitude
change also has to do with other personality characteristics such as susceptibility to
persuasion, intelligence, readiness to accept change, etc. People are more likely to
accept information if they feel the communicator has no intent to change our attitudes
and opinions.

The Good, the Bad and the Ugly Influence

The outcomes of persuasion could be good, bad or ugly depending on the modes of
tactics and contexts in which they are employed:
• Ugly influencers push and shove others into decisions. They use intimidation:
“My way or no way.” Their style leaves others feeling powerless and resistant to
innovation or change.
• Bad influencers might work hard to achieve legitimate and desirable goals, but
lack the skills to influence effectively. “Do what I say and not what I do.” This
person renders himself unbelievable, provides no model for what should or could
be, and is unable to show others how change will benefit them. Their style causes
people to feel they are being punished or cutting through red tape, all to please
someone who appears ineffective.
• Good influencers get people to focus on an issue that is clearly and simply
stated, finds out what the emotional value of the issue is to the people involved,
and seeks solutions that satisfy the people who are needed to make the solution
work. Their style is to “walk the talk” because what they say is congruent with
what they do. Good influencers are effective because they create trust, which
enables others to take risks. Their habit of communicating, informing and
including others builds loyalty.

Persuasion

Persuasion

Smart people know that managing by decree does not work with baby boomers
and Gen-Xers, who will not tolerate the unquestioned authority of the old commandand-
control environment. Work gets done by people who do not just ask: “What should
I do?”, but who ask: “Why should I do it?” Answering these ‘why’ questions requires
persuasion—a conversational art worth developing.

Effective persuasion is a process which involves negotiating and learning through
which a persuader leads colleagues to a problem’s shared solution. It incorporates
discovery, preparation and dialogue. It is about testing and revising ideas in concert
with one’s colleagues’ concerns and needs.

The principal purpose of persuasion can be defined as being able to influence or
change one’s attitudes, beliefs or values towards a particular subject/object, so that
these will merge and finally equal the persuader’s thoughts and feelings.

• Attitude = A predisposition to respond to people, ideas, objects, or events in
evaluative ways
Beliefs = The ways people perceive reality to be; our conceptions about what is true
and what is false
Values = People’s most enduring judgements about what’s good and bad in life
The objective of persuasion may range from slight shifts in opinion to complete change
in behavior. But, how does one determine whether one’s goals are persuasive?

The goals are persuasive —
• when one seeks to influence an audience’s attitudes about an issue
• when one seeks to influence an audience’s beliefs or understanding about
something
• when one seeks to influence an audience’s behavior
• when one seeks to reinforce an audience’s existing attitudes, beliefs or
behaviors

Tools of Problem-Solving

Tools of Problem-Solving

The APC tool For Problem-Solving

APC stands for:
• Alternatives
• Possibilities
• Choices
The three words are close in meaning, although one or more may be more appropriate
in a given situation.
Doing an APC means thinking of alternatives, or different approaches then, with these
multiple choices before us, we can select what seems to be the best solution.
Generating alternatives opens up possibilities. It requires special mental effort as the
human brain naturally looks for patterns and certainty rather than alternatives.
That is why a thinking tool such as APC forces the mind into new directions, into actually
focusing, concentrating on alternatives.

 “The Ideal Solution Method”

In this method the alternatives are listed and then ignored. Instead, an ‘ideal solution’
is fashioned for the situation.
Once that is considered, the list of alternatives can be consulted again to see which
one of them comes nearest to the ‘ideal solution’.
So the alternatives are now considered not on their own individual merit but according
to how close they come to the ‘ideal’.

 The TEC Framework

• T stands for Target
• E stands for Expand and Explore
• C stands for Contract and Conclude

This framework can be put into a time-limited 5-minute problem-solving session.
Spend 1 minute on Target and Task: The target is the precise focus of the thinking and
the task is the thinking task to be performed.
Spend 2 minutes on Expand and Explore: Open up the phrase, explore the territory,
pull in information and concepts.
Spend 2 minutes on Contract and Conclude: Try to make sense of when you have
come to a definite conclusion or solution.
By strictly timing ourselves according to this framework the mind really focuses and
produces results!