External & Internal psychological stressors

External & Internal psychological stressors

External psychological stressors are such things as poor working conditions or
conflicting relationships. External psychological stressors include:

• Physical Environment
• Noise
• Poor Lighting
• Heat
• Confined Spaces
• Social Interaction
• Rudeness
• Bossiness
• Aggressiveness
• Bullying
• Organisational
• Rules
• Regulations
• Deadlines
• Major Life Events
• Birth
• Death
• Transfer
• Promotion
• Marital problems
• Daily Hassles
• Commuting
• Mechanical breakdowns


Internal psychological stress can often be the most harmful because there is frequently
no resolution to the stressful situation. These stressors are anxieties about events that
may or may not happen, and the stress response continues to be active as long as one is
worrying about it. The internal psychological stressors include:

• Lifestyle choices
• Caffeine
• Lack of sleep
• Overloaded schedule
• Negative self – talk
• Pessimistic thinking
• Self criticism
• Over analysing
• Mind traps
• Unrealistic expectations
• Taking things personally
• All or nothing thinking
• Exaggeration
• Rigid thinking
• Personality traits
• Perfectionists
• Workaholics

Stress can affect the overall performance of a person and for some could result in serious
ill health - both mental and physical. Such ailments as hypertension, coronary thrombosis,
migraine and peptic ulcers are only a few of the illnesses recognized as having a stress related
background. In the workplace it has been seen, through on-going research, to
have a very detrimental effect.

Common causes of stress within the workplace include:

• The Drive for Success: Modern society is driven by ‘work’. Personal adequacy
equates with professional success and people crave for status and abhor failure.
The demand for monetary success / professional status is simply overwhelming.
• Working Conditions: Physical and mental health is adversely affected by
unpleasant working conditions, such as high noise levels, lighting, temperature and
unsocial or excessive hours.
• Overwork: Stress may occur through inability to cope with the technical or intellectual
demands of a particular task. Circumstances such as long hours, unrealistic
deadlines and frequent interruptions will compound this.
• Underwork: This may arise from boredom because there is not enough to do, or
because a job is dull and repetitive.
• Uncertainty: About the work - role objectives, responsibilities, and expectations,
and a lack of communication and feedback can result in confusion, helplessness,
and stress.
• Conflict: Stress can arise from work which the individual does not want to do or
that conflicts with their personal, social and family values.
• Responsibility: The greater the level of responsibility the greater the potential level
of stress
• Relationships at work: Good relationships with colleagues are crucial. Open
discussion is essential to encourage positive relationships.
• Changes at work: Changes that alter psychological, physiological and behavioural
routines such as promotion, retirement and redundancy are particularly stressful.

Kinds of Stress

Kinds of Stress

American Physiological Association classifies stress into three categories - acute
stress, episodic acute stress, and chronic stress — each with its own characteristics,
symptoms, duration, and treatment approaches.

1. Acute Stress

Acute stress is the most common form of stress. It comes from demands and pressures
of the recent past and anticipated demands and pressures of the near future. Acute
stress is thrilling and exciting in small doses, but too much is exhausting. A fast run
down a challenging ski slope, for example, is exhilarating early in the day. That same
ski run late in the day is taxing and wearing. Skiing beyond limits can lead to falls and
broken bones. By the same token, overdoing on short-term stress can lead to
psychological distress, tension headaches, upset stomach, and other symptoms.
Because it is short term, acute stress doesn’t have enough time to do the extensive
damage associated with long-term stress. The most common symptoms are:
• emotional distress: some combination of anger or irritability, anxiety, and
depression, the three stress emotions;
• muscular problems including tension, headache, back pain, jaw pain, and the
muscular tensions that lead to pulled muscles and tendon and ligament
problems;
• stomach, gut and bowel problems such as heartburn, acidity, flatulence, diarrhea,
constipation, and irritable bowel syndrome;
• elevation in blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, sweaty palms, heart palpitations,
dizziness, migraine headaches, cold hands or feet, shortness of breath, and
chest pain.
Acute stress can crop up in anyone’s life, and it is highly treatable and manageable.

2. Episodic Acute Stress

The symptoms of episodic acute stress are the symptoms of extended over arousal:
persistent tension headaches, migraines, hypertension, chest pain, and heart disease.

Treating episodic acute stress requires intervention on a number of levels, generally
requiring professional help, which may take many months.
Often, lifestyle and personality issues are so ingrained and habitual with those suffering
episodic acute stress that they see nothing wrong with the way they conduct their lives.
They blame their woes on other people and external events. Frequently, they see their
lifestyle, their patterns of interacting with others, and their ways of perceiving the world
as part and parcel of who and what they are.
Sufferers can be fiercely resistant to change. Only the promise of relief from pain and
discomfort of their symptoms can keep them in treatment and on track in their recovery
program

3. Chronic Stress

Chronic stress comes when a person never sees a way out of a miserable situation.
It’s the stress of unrelenting demands and pressures for seemingly interminable period.
With no hope, the individual gives up searching for solutions.
Some chronic stresses stem from traumatic, early childhood experiences; get
internalized and remain forever painful and present. Some experiences profoundly
affect personality. A view of the world, or a belief system, is created that causes unending
stress for the individual. When personality or deep-seated convictions and beliefs must
be reformulated, recovery requires active self-examination, often with professional help.
The worst aspect of chronic stress is that people get used to it. They forget it is there.
People are immediately aware of acute stress because it is new; they ignore chronic
stress because it is old, familiar, and sometimes, almost comfortable.
Chronic stress kills through suicide, violence, heart attack, stroke, and, perhaps, even
cancer. People wear down to a final, fatal breakdown. Because physical and mental
resources are depleted through long-term attrition, the symptoms of chronic stress are
difficult to treat and may require extended medical as well as behavioral treatment
and stress management.

Understanding Stress

Understanding Stress

“It’s not stress that kills us, it is our reaction to it.”
- Hans Selye


Stress is defined as the emotional and physical strain caused by a person’s response
to pressure from the outside world. It occurs when there is a mismatch between what
the people aspire to do what they are capable of doing. In other words, stress results
when the pressure to perform a certain task is greater than the resources available to
perform it.

S = P > R
[S - Stress; P-Pressure; R- Resource]

Stress is not altogether a modern phenomenon. Stress has been of concern in the
medical profession since the days of Hippocrates. Walter Cannon, a physiologist at
Harvard, however, formalized the modern notion of stress, at the beginning of the
twentieth century. Cannon described the “flight or fight response”, a heightened arousal
state that prepares an organism to deal with threats. When under threat, one’s body
releases a rush of adrenaline in order to allow a ‘fight or flight’ response (i.e. to give the push one needs to fight the threat or to run away from it).

Medical research suggests that some thirty hormones are released as part of the
body’s automatic and innate “fight or flight” stress response. These hormones provide
quick energy to cope with emergencies and exigencies. Stress hormones often build
and, without release, contribute to wear and tear. Excessive stress can inhibit the body’s
immune system functioning and directly impair the functioning of key body systems.

This is the reason why stress can increase one’s susceptibility to illness, exacerbate
an illness, or protract recovery from an illness.

Unrelieved stress, over time, can take the form of:
• Tense muscles that lead to headache, neck-ache, jaw-ache, back-ache
• Stomach pain, indigestion, bowel upset, ulcers
• Feelings of anxiety, nervousness, tension, helplessness
• Increasing anger or irritability, chest pain
• Depression, exhaustion, lack of concentration, insomnia
• Restlessness, boredom, confusion, the impulse to run and hide

Persons who are stressed may “take out” their frustration on those around them. Others
may keep their feelings to themselves and experience a sullen gloomy feeling or a
sense of isolation.

How can you get an extra hour out of each day?

How can you get an extra hour out of each day?

Here are some tips to help you squeeze those extra minutes out of your day. Of course,

you can adapt these so that they will fit in with your situation.

1. Get up earlier

2. Watch less TV 

3. Avoid allowing others to waste your time

4. If you don’t have to drive to work, use that time to study or plan. If you do

drive to work listen to a motivational tape on the way to work instead of

that mindless dj talk.

5. Organize your work; do it systematically.

6. Make creative use of lunchtime.

7. Delegate authority if, possible.

8. Spend less time on unimportant phone calls.

9. Think first, and then do the task.

10. Do what you dream about doing, instead of just dreaming about it.

11. Work hardest when you’re the most mentally alert

12. Eliminate activities that make the smallest contributions to your life.

13. Always do the toughest jobs first.

14. Before each major act ask, “Is this really necessary?”

15. Choose interesting and constructive literature for spare time reading.

16. Learn how to sleep. Sleep soundly, then work refreshed.

17. Skip desserts.

18. Stop smoking.

19. Write notes or letters while waiting for others.

20. Always carry a book.

21. Combine tasks that are done in the same area.

22. Be prompt for all appointments.

23. Lay out your clothes the night before.

24. Call on specialists to do work that you cannot do efficiently

25. Learn to read more rapidly.

26. Take a nap after lunch. Then take a shower. Begin the evening hours

relaxed and refreshed.

27. Avoid interruptions.

28. Avoid making a big production out of tiny tasks.

29. Search out job shortcuts.

30. Know your limitations.

31. Work to your full capacity. I know it’s tough to break bad habits. However,

it is necessary to make sacrifices so that your business can be successful.

Don’t try to implement all of these ideas at once. Implement them one at a time and

repeat them until they become a part of your daily routine.

Monochronic & Polychronic Views of Time

Monochronic & Polychronic Views of Time 

Just as a person’s overall personality is made up of and represented by his or her
traits, a person’s time personality is made up of a series of time styles – monochronic
or polychronic. It is expected that a person’s awareness of the monochronic/polychronic
side of personal time style affects his or her overall approach to time use, perceptions
of time pressure and the amounts and order of time spent on tasks. This, in turn,
affects his or her personal efficiency.

Monochronic approach to time management is essentially objective and lays emphasis
on promptness, speed, brevity and punctuality. It is a very efficient and focused
way to manage work and life. Monochronic time managers are those who thrive on
detailed planning and organization. They prefer to focus on one task at a time and they
follow a schedule from which they don’t like to deviate. They tend to get upset by distractions
or interruptions and are inclined to put new tasks off until a later date, when
they can be worked into the schedule.

Polychronic approach to time management is subjective and lays emphasis on
inspiration, imagination, flexibility, intuition and dedication. Trust, bonding, pleasure
and quality of life influence more strongly the decisions of a person who ‘ticks’ in
polychronic time. Polychronic time managers prefer to have many projects under way
simultaneously, enjoy changing from activity to activity and are unflustered by
distractions and interruptions. 

Unlike their monochronic counterparts, polychronic managers believe they perform well under pressure Clearly, monochronic approach is better suited for dealing with routine and predictable tasks, while polychronic approach is better suited in dealing with things such as creating a new concept or resolving an argument. Conflict arises when managers apply a monchronic style to a situation that demands polychronic time, or managers prefer polychronic style

while the situation warrants the use of monchronic style.
So how do the people cope with a healthy need for subjective, polychronic, self-imposed
time and at the same time fit in with the monochronic and objective time measures? The
only way managers can figure out which method works best in a given situation is based
on sound reasoning and acumen.

The Eleven Time Thieves in MANAGING TIME

The Eleven Time Thieves in MANAGING TIME 

1. Poor Planning: Failure to see the value of planning and getting impatient to get
something done are the causes of poor planning. Absence of a plan of action is likely to
trigger off a false start, resulting in unproductive time utilization on the critical path of the
task they have undertaken. Consequently, the managers might not find enough time for
completing the task.

2. Crisis Management: Most often, crisis management is an offspring of lack of
prioritization of tasks. As a result of the inability to identify between the urgent, the important
and the unnecessary tasks, unimportant tasks are likely to get done first at the cost of
important tasks. Consequently, the managers are not likely to find enough time to get around
to the important things.

3. Procrastination: It is easy to put off tasks if they are not due right away. The trouble is,
tasks pile up and can force managers to run into a time crunch later. Procrastination is
generally triggered off by the fear of failure / success, perfectionism, wanting to do it all or
incorrect priorities. It is a virtue to want to do a good job. But some people become so
anxious about getting a job done perfectly that they never complete it. Managers should
examine whether their efforts to get the job done perfectly are really improving things or
preventing them from getting the job done.

4. Interruptions: Interruptions and distractions arise due to lack of planning, poor
concentration and lack of control over environment. They are unnecessary thieves of a
manager’s time and come in many forms – drop-in visitors, telephones, e-mails
unscheduled meetings, poor communications and confused chain of authority etc. Managers
should be less willing to automatically give away their time just because they demand it.

They should learn to avoid distractions if they are to get work done. They should work in
areas where they are less likely to be disturbed and tell people when they are busy and
cannot be disturbed.

5. Not Delegating: Wanting-to-do-all by oneself is yet another thief that could let the
managers get time out of control. They feel that employees can never do anything as well
as they can. They fear that something will go wrong if someone else takes over a job. They
lack time for long-range planning because they are bogged down in day-to-day operations.

6. Unnecessary Meetings: If a meeting is held without a specific agenda and nothing
productive comes out of it, clearly that meeting was unnecessary. Obviously, such meetings
are thieves as the time is wasted and things just do not get started.

7. The “shuffling blues”: Managers often waste much time because of disorganization.
Keeping things that they need in a specific place, eliminating clutter, making sure that they
have all the materials or information that they need before starting on the task and following
a day-planner or schedule will help keep the ‘shuffling blues’ away at the work place.

8. Poor Physical Setup: Not having the things that the managers need frequently within
easy reach and having a lot of the things that they seldom require close-by results in wastage
of a lot of time, wearing out the carpet, retrieving what they frequently need. And of course,
as they pass others they will often pull them aside to steal some of their time.

9. Poor Networking: Quality relationships with employees and others can be a substantial
time-saver as they open doors for the managers with all kinds of opportunities. Failing to
develop a good network base will cause them to waste time creating what they might have
had through their network.

10. Bad Attitude: Nothing sinks a day more effectively than having a poor attitude. It
causes the managers to dwell on the problems and not the solutions and makes it possible
to throw the day away. When they are burdening others with their problems and complaints
they are forfeiting their valuable time.

11. Negative People: Being surrounded by negative people could mean the managers
are spending a lot of their time listening to them but getting nothing much or purposeful
from them. Obviously, avoiding such people will help the managers to minimize wasted hours and get some of their productive time back.

Misconceptions about Time

Misconceptions about Time

There are several misconceptions which we all have about time. They affect everyone

including those persons who may be considered quite successful and effective. Here are

some of the misconceptions identified by Dr. Mackenzie:

· Time management is simple - all it requires is common sense. While it is true

that the concept is simple, the self-discipline required to practice effective time

management is not easy.

· Work is best performed under pressure. Psychological studies show this to be

no more than an excuse for procrastination. One does not work well under pressure

- only does the best one can under the circumstances. Pressure and challenge

must not be confused. Lara’s performance when the West Indies Team is in trouble

has more to do with application and determination rather than pressure.

· I use a diary, a to-do list and have a secretary to keep me organized. One

has to keep oneself organized - no one can do it for others. The trouble with the

disorganized person is that he hardly has time to listen to his secretary or look at

his diary.

· I do not have the time. The effective worker or manager often gets more work

done in the first earlier hours of the morning than most laggards get done in the

whole day. He then no longer has to work against tight deadlines and under stress

which contributes to heart problems and not unusually the ultimate reduction of time

on this earth.

· Time management might be good for some kinds of work but my job is

creative. Time management is not about routine: it is about self-discipline. Lack of

discipline prevents one from being great instead of simply good.

Time management takes away the fun and freedom of spontaneity. But is working

under stress, forgetting appointments, making constant excuses and apologies to be fun?

Would it not be much more fun if by better organization one had one or two more hours

every day to spend with the family, to play games, read a good book, plan for tomorrow

and the day and week after or just relax?

Understanding Time

Understanding Time


Every individual on earth has the same amount of time - 60 seconds in a minute; 60
minutes in an hour; 1,440 minutes in a day; and 525,600 minutes in a year. While a
vast majority of people confesses faltering to come to grips with it, extremely few can
claim to have made the most of it. How is it that they have got it all done? It’s because
they have managed a way to figure out how to manage their time effectively.

Time Management is more than just managing time. It is about controlling the use of
the most valuable - and undervalued - resource. It is managing oneself in relation to
time. It is setting priorities and taking charge of the situation and time utilization. It
means changing those habits or activities that cause waste of time. It is being willing
to adopt habits and methods to make maximum use of time.

With good time management skills one is in control of one’s time, stress and energy
levels. One can maintain balance between one’s work and personal life. One finds
enough flexibility to respond to surprises or new opportunities. It is not how much time
one has, but rather the way one uses it. The bottom line is how well one manages time.

Internationally known authority on time management Dr. Alec Mackenzie in his book
The Time Trap argues that the very idea of time management is a misnomer because
one really cannot manage time in the way other resources can be managed: financial
capital, physical capital, human capital, information and time. While each of the first
four can be augmented, reduced, transferred or otherwise controlled, Time cannot be
manipulated. Dr. Mackenzie contends that when it comes to time, one can only manage
oneself in relation to it. One cannot control time as one can control other resources –
one can only control how one uses it. In the world in which we live, time cannot be
replaced or re-created. It is therefore not for us to choose whether we spend or save

time but to choose only how we spend it.

Some DONTs of Effective Communication

Some DONTs of Effective Communication

 

1. Don’t only send, listen!

When the changing of knowledge, attitudes and behavior is the aim of communication,
the ‘sending’ of messages is often the main concern of the communicators. In most
cases, listening to the people involved is more important than the sending of messages.
One must know the perceptions, beliefs and attitudes of the target groups, the language
they use and the way they can be reached. This implies that a great deal of listening is
an integral part of effective communication.

2. Don’t jump to means

A potential pitfall - which happens frequently - is starting to invest in means before
essential questions concerning the strategy have been answered. When this happens,
it is very likely that communication efforts will not be effective. There is a high risk that
either the wrong people are addressed with the right message or the right people are
reached with the wrong message.

3. But don’t over focus on strategies either

Another potential pitfall is the opposite of all that has been just mentioned above, that
is, to spend much energy and time on developing a communication strategy, then quickly
producing the communication means. This can result in a sound strategy implemented
with means which do not appeal or lack the necessary quality to be credible for the
target group.

4. Do not disregard communication barriers

Communication seems easy, but experience shows it is actually hard to communicate
effectively. Often, ambitions of communication are not met. Even worse, communication
can have negative side effects when used in the wrong way.
Why communication does seem so easy? It is our second nature. But often the person
or organization that communicates does not realize how the message will be interpreted
by the people for whom it is meant. Even worse, the message often does not even
reach the people concerned. There are many potential obstacles in the communication
process. Taking these obstacles into consideration, the effectiveness of communication
can be increased. The following barriers should be considered when one wants to
communicate:

• Said is not necessarily heard
• Heard is not necessarily understood
• Understood is not necessarily agreed upon
• Agreed is not necessarily acted upon
• Action is not necessarily repeated

5. Do not overestimate the potential of communication

Research has shown that the way people perceive situations and problems, strongly
depends on their perspective, values and previous experiences. It is also clear that it
is often very difficult to change people’s perception and that it can be a long term
process. It is more effective to regard other points of view as valuable instead of ‘untrue’.
Communicators should realize that in some situations the changing of perceptions is
unrealistic or may have negative side effects. If this is the case, the perception of the
people involved should be regarded as ‘reality’.

6. Do not underestimate the potential of communication

It is impossible to ‘not communicate’. If for instance a new industrial plant is installed
without communication with people living in the area, the message they will get might
be: ‘we are ignored, they don’t value our opinions, they just do as they like’.

Seven Actions for Effective Communication

Seven Actions for Effective Communication

Action1. Listen more carefully and responsively. Listen first and acknowledge what
you hear, even if you don’t agree with it, before expressing your experience or point of
view. In order to get more of your conversation partner’s attention in tense situations,
pay attention first; listen and give a brief restatement of what you have heard (especially
feelings) before you express your own needs or position. The kind of listening
recommended here separates acknowledging from approving or agreeing.
Acknowledging another person’s thoughts and feelings does not have to mean that
you approve of or agree with that person’s actions or way of experiencing, or that
you will do whatever someone asks.

Action2. Explain your conversational intent and invite consent. You can help your
conversation partners cooperate with you and reduce possible misunderstandings by
starting important conversations with a stated invitation to join you in the specific kind
of conversation you want to have. The more the conversation is going to mean to you,
the more important it is for your conversation partner to understand the big picture.
Most conversations express one or another of about thirty basic intentions, which imply
different kinds of cooperation from your conversation partners. They can play their role
in specific conversations much better if you clarify for yourself, and then identify for
them, the role you are asking for, rather than leaving them to guess what you want.
When you need to have a long, complex, or emotion-laden conversation with someone,
it can make a GIANT difference if you briefly explain your conversational intention first
and then invite their consent. Many successful communicators begin special
conversations with a preface that goes something like: “I would like to talk with you for
a few minutes about [subject matter]. When would it be a good time?” The exercise
for this step will encourage you to expand your list of possible conversations and to
practice starting a wide variety of them.


Action3. Express yourself more clearly and completely. Slow down and give your
listeners more information about what you are experiencing by using a wide range of
“I-statements.” One way to help get more of your listener’s empathy is to express more
of the five basic dimensions of your experience: Here is an example using the five
main “I-messages” identified by various researchers over the past half century:
At anytime when one person sincerely listens to another, a very creative process starts on
in which the listener mentally reconstructs the speaker’s experience. The more facets or
dimensions of your experience you share with easy-to-grasp “I statements,” the easier it
will be for your conversation partner to reconstruct your experience accurately and
understand what you are feeling. This is equally worthwhile whether you are trying to solve
a problem with someone or trying to express appreciation for him/ her. Expressing yourself
this carefully might appear to take longer than your usual quick style of communication. But
if you include all the time it takes to unscramble everyday misunderstandings, and to work
through the feelings that usually accompany not being understood, expressing yourself
more completely can actually take a lot less time.

Action 4. Translate your (and other people’s) complaints and criticisms into specific
requests, and explain your requests. In order to get more cooperation from others, whenever
possible ask for what you want by using specific, action-oriented, positive language rather
than by using generalizations, “why’s,” “don’ts” or “somebody should’s.” Help your listeners
comply by explaining your requests with a “so that...”, “it would help me to... if you would...”
or “in order to... .” Also, when you are receiving criticism and complaints from others,
translate and restate the complaints as action requests. ....”).

Action 5. Ask questions more “open-endedly” and more creatively. “Open-endedly...”: In
order to coordinate our life and work with the lives and work of other people, we all need to
know more of what other people are feeling and thinking, wanting and planning. But our
usual “yes/ no” questions actually tend to shut people up rather than opening them up. In
order to encourage your conversation partners to share more of their thoughts and feelings,
ask “open-ended” rather than “yes/ no” questions. Open-ended questions allow for a wide
range of responses. For example, asking “How did you like that food/ movie/ speech/
doctor etc.?” will evoke a more detailed response than “Did you like it?” which could be
answered with a simple “yes” or “no”.

Action6. Express more appreciation. To build more satisfying relationships with the people
around you, express more appreciation, delight, affirmation, encouragement and gratitude.
Because life continually requires us to attend to problems and breakdowns, it gets very
easy to see in life only what is broken and needs fixing. But satisfying relationships (and a
happy life) require us to notice and respond to what is delightful, excellent, and enjoyable,
to work well done, to food well cooked, etc. It is appreciation that makes a relationship
strong enough to accommodate differences and disagreements. Thinkers and researchers
in several different fields have reached similar conclusions about this: healthy relationships
need a core of mutual appreciation.

Action7. Make better communication an important part of your everyday life. In order to
have your new communication skills available in a wide variety of situations, you will need
to practice them in as wide a variety of situations as possible, until, like driving or bicycling,
they become “second nature.” The seventh action is to practice your evolving communication skills in everyday life, solving problems together, giving emotional support
to the important people in your life, and enjoying how you are becoming a positive influence
in your world. This action includes learning to see each conversation as an opportunity to
grow in skill and awareness, each encounter as an opportunity to express more
appreciation, each argument as an opportunity to translate your complaints into requests,
and so on.

One deeper level of this seventh step concerns learning to separate yourself from the
current culture of hatred, animosity and violence, and learning how to create little islands of cooperation and mutuality.

Assessing Communication Competence

Assessing Communication Competence

Communication competence is the ability to relate to others with accuracy, clarity,
comprehensibility, coherence, expertise, effectiveness and appropriateness. It is a
measure of determining to what extent the goals of interaction are achieved. However,
communicative competence is contingent upon the context in which the interaction
takes place. Communication which is successful with one group in one situation may
not be perceived as competent with a different group in another situation.
 “The domain of communicative competence includes learning what the available means are, how they have been employed in various situations in the past, and being able to determine the ones that
have the highest probability of success in a given situation.

Canary and Cody (Interpersonal Communication) provide six criteria for assessing
competence. The criteria include - adaptability, conversational-involvement,
conversational-management, empathy, effectiveness, and appropriateness.

1. Adaptability: Adaptability is the ability to assess situations and when necessary
change behaviors and goals to meet the needs of interaction. It signals awareness of
the other person’s perspectives, interests, goals, and communication approach, plus
the willingness to modify ones own behaviors and goals to adapt to the interaction
situation. By mindfully tracking what is going on in the intercultural situation, both parties
may modify their nonverbal and verbal behavior to achieve a more synchronized
communication process. In modifying their behavioral styles, polarized views on the
problem may also be depolarized or “softened.” It consists of six factors:

1. Social experience - participation in various social interactions
2. Social composure - refers to keeping calm through accurate perception
3. Social confirmation - refers to acknowledgment of partner’s goals
4. Appropriate disclosure - being sensitive to amount and type of info
5. Articulation - ability to express ideas through language
6. Wit - ability to use humour in adapting to social situations; ease tensions

2. Conversational Involvement: Conversational interaction is a factor that
determines the degree to which individuals participate in conversation with others.
Specifically, receivers of communication differ in terms of their attentiveness and
perceptiveness. These parameters influence how information and cues are received
from others.

In a study involving 1000 self-assessment reports, Cegala D J (“Interaction involvement:
A cognitive dimension of communicative competence. Communication Education”)
found that approximately 48% of individuals are not generally highly involved in their
conversations. He describes perceptiveness as, “the ability to assign appropriate
meanings to others’ behavior as well as the ability to understand what meanings others
have assigned to one’s own behavior”. Attentiveness is cognizance of another’s
communicative behavior. Responsiveness is “a tendency to mentally react in a given
situation or circumstance and adapt by knowing what to say and when to say.”
Highly involved persons are predicted to be more issue-oriented and attentive to the
underlying message in the conversation. On the other hand, less involved persons are
expected to concentrate on events or surface of the conversation.

3. Conversational Management: Conversation-management is essentially the way
the communicators regulate their interactions. It is a matter of knowing the rules of
interpersonal communication exchanges and following them. Communication rules are
just like other socially conditioned behaviors and are acquired in the same way. What
are the rules that an astute and observant communicator knows about to manage
interaction?
Wiemann J (Explication and Test of a Model of Communicative Competence: Human
communication”) mentions the five most common communicative competencies:

1. First, one cannot interrupt the speaker.
2. Second, only one person may talk at a time.
3. Third, speakers’ turns must alternate or interchange.
4. Fourth, frequent or long pauses are inappropriate.
5. Fifth, both parties should be assured that the other is devoting his or her
undivided attention.

4. Empathy: Empathy, in its broadest usage, is considered a fundamental dimension
of interpersonal and communication competence. Empathy is the ability to demonstrate
understanding and sharing reactions in any given situation. It is an innate human capacity
that gives the ability to understand the unique experiences of another person.


• It connects people with one another on a meaningful and fulfilling level.
• It demonstrates a person’s caring attitude toward others
• It helps understand the people better.
• It usually leads conversation towards emotional issues.
• It lets one build a personal rapport with others
• It helps reduce ones irritation with others attitude or behaviour.
• It helps reduce ones prejudice or negative assumptions about others
• It fosters more meaningful, more helpful, closer friendships.

5. Effectiveness: Effectiveness refers to the degree to which communicators achieve
mutually shared meaning and integrative goal-related outcomes. Effective encoding
and decoding processes lead to mutually shared meanings. Mutually shared meanings
lead to perceived intercultural understanding. Interaction effectiveness has been
achieved when multiple meanings are attended to with accuracy and when mutually
desired interaction goals have been reached. Interaction ineffectiveness occurs when
content or relational meanings are mismatched and intercultural noises and clashes
jam the communication channels. Communication effectiveness can improve task
productivity.

6. Appropriateness: A fundamental criterion for determining communication
competence, appropriateness is the ability to uphold the expectations of a given
situation. Individuals typically use their own expectations and scripts to approach an
interaction scene. They also formulate their impressions of a competent communicator
on the basis of their perceptions of the other’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors in the
particular interaction setting. To understand whether appropriate communication has
been perceived, it is vital to obtain competence evaluations from the standpoint of
both communicators and interested observers. It is also critical to obtain both self perception
and other-perception data. Appropriate communication behaviors can be
assessed through understanding the underlying values, norms, social roles,
expectations, and scripts that govern the interaction episode.

Speaking

Speaking

By age sixteen, Washington had copied out by hand, 110 Rules of Civility &
Decent Behavior in Company and Conversation. They are based on a set of rules
composed by French Jesuits in 1595.
They all have in common a focus on other people rather than the narrow focus of our own self-interests that we find so prevalent today. Fussy or not, they represent more than just manners. These rules proclaim respect for others and in turn give people the gift of self-respect and heightened self-esteem. When it concerns  the manners of speaking, the relevant rules of civility that can be drawn from Washington’s book are:

• Be considerate of others. Do not embarrass others.
• Don’t draw attention to yourself.
• When you speak, be concise.
• When a person does try his/ her best and fails, do not criticize him/ her.
• When you must give advice or criticism, consider the timing, whether it should be
given in public or private, the manner and above all be gentle.
• Do not make fun of anything important to others.
• If you criticize someone else of something, make sure you are not guilty of it yourself.
Actions speak louder than words.
• Do not detract from others nor be overbearing in giving orders.
• Do not go where you are not wanted. Do not give unasked-for advice.
• Do not be quick to talk about something when you don’t have all the facts.
• Do not speak badly of those who are not present.

• Show interest in others conversation, but don’t talk with your mouth full.
While manners of speech matters a great deal in defining the workplace relationships, it is
also essential that managers keep in mind that the following ground rules while speaking
to their colleagues or subordinates.

• Keep the message clear
• Be prepared
• Keep the message simple
• Be vivid when delivering the message
• Be natural
• Keep the message concise

I-Messages in COMMUNICATION

I-Messages in COMMUNICATION

It is very important to use “I-Messages” in a support group to convey one’s feelings to
the entire group. If feelings are not expressed, they are often disguised behind the
group. “I-Messages” also provide a preventative focus in that they keep undesirable
behaviors in check or they can insure that some things don’t happen or get carried
away. The use of “I-Messages” may also provide a soft mechanism for confrontation
and correction in that “I” is perceived as being softer than “you”.

Most of the messages sent to people about their behavior are “you” messages —
messages that are directed at the person. These have a high probability of putting
people down, making them feel guilty, and making them resistant to change.
An “I Message”allows a person who is affected by another’s behavior to express the impact
it is having on him or her. This leaves the responsibility for modifying the behavior with
the person who demonstrated the behavior.

“I-Messages” build relationships and do not place the sender in the position of enforcing
a new behavior. Many people have been taught to avoid “I” (as in I want or I would like),
so it is often difficult to use this method.

• Four Parts of an “I-Message”
• Specific behavior (“When you . . .”)
• Resulting feeling (“It . . .”)
• Effect (“I feel . . .”)
• Resolution (“So, would you . . .”)

Communication Methods

Communication  Methods

Communication occurs in an organization in the context of people trying to fulfill one or
several of the following six needs:

• To feel respected
• To give or get information
• To be empathically understood and respected
• To cause change of action
• To create excitement and reduce boredom
• To avoid something unpleasant, like silence or confrontation
The methods used by them to fulfill those needs include listening, speaking, reading and
writing.

 Listening

Various studies stress the importance of listening as a communication skill.
They point out that many of us spend 70 to 80 percent of our waking hours in some form of
communication. Of that time, we spend about 9 percent writing, 16 percent reading, 30
percent speaking, and 45 percent listening. Studies also confirm that most of us are poor
and inefficient listeners. Most people listen at an efficiency level of less than about 25
percent. Studies also show that, immediately after listening to a 10-minute oral presentation,
the average listener has heard, understood, properly evaluated, and retained only
half of what was said.
People generally remember
• 10 % of what they read
• 20 % of what they hear
• 30 % of what they see
• 50 % of what they hear and see
• 70 % of what they say and write
• 90 % of what they say as they do something

Management guru Stephen Covey differentiates listeners as those listening with the
intent to reply, and those listening with the intent to understand. Because listening is
so vital to workplace success, it is important to take note of the seven “sins” that get in
the way of good verbal communication (Dan Bobinski: The Seven Deadly Sins of (Not)
Listening):

Sin #1: Filtering

• This is when a person’s mind is sifting through another’s words and tuning in
only when he or she hears agreement. Commonly, a Filterer replies to someone
else’s statements with “yeah, but….”

Sin #2: Second Guessing

• Someone who is second-guessing usually misses important details because
they are too busy (a) imagining someone has hidden motives for saying what
they’re saying, and (b) trying to figure out what those hidden motives might be.

Sin #3: Discounting

• This sin occurs when a listener lacks respect for a speaker. What the speaker
is saying could be 100% dead on correct, but a Discounter will either internally
or publicly scoff at what’s being said, for any number of reasons. The sad thing
about Discounters is that they often miss the solutions to the problems before
them, simply because they don’t like the source. A milder form of discounting
occurs when content is brushed off just because the person speaking is not a
good speaker.

Sin #4: Relating

• A Relater is someone who continually finds references from his or her own
background and compares them to what the speaker is saying. Relaters often
appear self-centered, as everything they hear is publicly compared or contrasted
to his or her own experiences.

Sin #5: Rehearsing

• This sin blocks much listening as it is simply waiting for the other speaker to
finish what he or she is saying so the rehearser can start talking again. While
someone else is talking, the rehearser is thinking about how to say the next
sentence.

Sin #6: Forecasting

• Someone who takes an idea from the speaker and runs light years ahead of the
topic at hand is forecasting. Forecasting can stem from being bored with the
subject matter, or simply because one’s mind automatically thinks ahead.

Sin #7: Placating

• Worst of all listening sins, placating agrees with everything anyone else says,
just to avoid conflict.
There are a few but effective techniques used in being an active listener. These include
verbal and non-verbal techniques. These techniques show others that people are paying
attention to them and are interested in what they are saying.

Non-verbal techniques include:

• good eye contact
• facial expressions
• body language
• silence
• touching

Verbal techniques include:

• I’m “listening” cues
• disclosures
• validating statements
• statements of support
• reflection/ mirroring statements

It is very important to use “I-Messages” in a support group to convey one’s feelings to
the entire group. If feelings are not expressed, they are often disguised behind the
group. “I-Messages” also provide a preventative focus in that they keep undesirable
behaviors in check or they can insure that some things don’t happen or get carried
away. The use of “I-Messages” may also provide a soft mechanism for confrontation
and correction in that “I” is perceived as being softer than “you”.
Most of the messages sent to people about their behavior are “you” messages —
messages that are directed at the person. These have a high probability of putting
people down, making them feel guilty, and making them resistant to change. An “I Message”
allows a person who is affected by another’s behavior to express the impact
it is having on him or her. This leaves the responsibility for modifying the behavior with
the person who demonstrated the behavior.

Communication Types

Communication Types

People  have many opportunities to communicate with others.
Communication can be classified in the following different ways.

• Intrapersonal Communication: When people talk to themselves, communication
takes place within the brain. It embraces their thoughts, experiences and perceptions
during a communication event. Behavior responses on all other levels of
communication essentially begin on intrapersonal level. On this level, the individual
forms personal rules and patterns of communication. Intrapersonal communication
encompasses:
• Sense-making e.g. interpreting maps, texts, signs, and symbols
• Interpreting non-verbal communication e.g. gestures, eye contact
• Communication between body parts; e.g. “My stomach is telling me it’s time
for lunch.”
• Day-dreaming
• Nocturnal dreaming and
• Many others...

• Interpersonal Communication: Interpersonal communication is also referred to
as dyadic communication, or communication between two individuals. This type
of communication can occur in both a one-on-one and a group setting. This also
means being able to handle different people in different situations and making people
feel at ease. Gestures such as eye contact, body movement, and hand gestures
are also part of interpersonal communication. The most common functions of
interpersonal communication are listening, talking and conflict resolution. Types of
interpersonal communication vary from verbal to non-verbal and from situation to
situation. Interpersonal communication involves face-to-face communication in a
way that accomplishes the purpose and is appropriate.

• Small Group Communication: Small group communication is an interaction
process that occurs among three or more people interacting in an attempt to achieve
commonly recognized goals either face-to-face or through mediated forms. This is
sometimes included in the interpersonal level — the most obvious difference is the
number of persons involved in the process. The small group may be a family of
three talking at supper, or a meeting of an organization with just a few members.

• Public Communication or Public Speaking: The speaker sends messages to
an audience, which is not identified as individuals. Unlike the previous levels, the
speaker is doing most, if not all, of the talking.

• Mass Communication: Mass communication occurs when a small number of
people send messages to a large anonymous and usually heterogeneous audience
using specialized communication media. It represents the creation and sending of
a homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous audience through the media.

• Non-Verbal Communication: In non-verbal communication, people send
messages to each other without talking. They communicate through facial
expressions, head positions, arm and hand movements, body posture, and
positioning of legs and feet. How people use “space” also transmits a message.
By being aware of non-verbal communication, one can interpret the signals of others,
or send signals to others. Awareness of non-verbal communication helps people:
• Project an image of confidence and knowledge.
• Demonstrate power or influence
• Express sincerity, interest and cooperativeness.
• Create trust.
• Recognize personal tension in self and others.
• Identify discrepancies between what people are saying and what they are
actually thinking.
• Change behavior and environment to encourage productive discussion.
Handbook on Communicaiton Skills

LATERAL " L " IN PHONETICS

LATERAL  " L " IN PHONETICS

Production of a LATERAL is accomplished when the tongue tip makes contact with the roof
of the mouth, blocking lung air from passing over the top of the tongue and thereby forcing it
to pass around (laterally) either one or both sides of the tongue. The most common lateral in
English is [l], as in “long,” “live,” and “low.”
“All laterals are either fricatives or approximants. An APPROXIMANT is a sound produced
by two articulators coming close to each other. The airstream for approximants is directed by
the articulators but not impeded…The airstream is not impeded sufficiently to produce
audible turbulence between the articulators…The term approximant is derived from the
articulation involved: the active articulator (or some part of it – in the case of laterals, the
tongue sides) “approximates” or approaches the passive articulator.”

“[l] is the sound that most English speakers use in the pronunciation of words such as ‘long,’
‘live,’ and ‘low,’ in which a lateral occurs at the onset of a syllable. The syllable-initial
lateral approximant [l] in English is sometimes called a ‘clear l’ to distinguish it from the
syllable-final lateral approximant in words such as ‘bill’ or ‘null’ [called a ‘dark l’].

“[l̥] is produced with the same articulation as [l], but without voicing. Say the sequence
[lɑl:ɑl:ɑ]14, pausing on the laterals, then repeat the entire sequence without voicing [l̥ɑ̥l̥:ɑ̥l̥:ɑ̥].
In practicing to produce this sound, be careful not to introduce noisy turbulence.

“[ɬ] is produced with an articulation similar to that of [l], but with sufficient constriction and
air flow to cause audible noise due to air turbulence. Start with the voiceless lateral just
described, then squeeze the sides of your tongue toward the roof of your mouth to narrow the
constriction and thus produce noise. The tip of your tongue must remain on the alveolar
ridge.

“[ɮ] is produced in the same way as the voiceless alveolar fricative [ɬ], but with voicing. It
sounds similar to [ʒ], but with the addition of a lateral quality. Beware of rounding your lips
for this voiced lateral, just as you need to beware of rounding your lips for the sibilant [ʒ].”

PHONOLOGY

PHONOLOGY

While phonetics is the study of the ways in which speech sounds are produced,
phonology is the study of (1) how the speech sounds of a language
are used in that language to distinguish meaningful units (such as words)from each other, and (2) how sounds are patterned in a language. Consequently,
the study of phonology requires us to take meaning into consideration,
while phonetics does not. In this section we explore phonology and
the basic unit of phonological analysis, the phoneme.

phonemes

You might reasonably have assumed that whenever speakers distinguish between
a pair of sounds, they will use that difference to distinguish between
words. For example, we know that English speakers distinguish between [s]
and [z], and we use this difference to signal the difference between the words
sip and zip. We will say that [s] and [z] contrast with each other in English.
In fact, all of the sounds we have described so far contrast with each other in
English and so are used by English speakers to distinguish words from each
other. You can test this out by taking any pair of sounds (as we took [s] and
[z]) and creating a pair of words (like sip and zip) which are identical, except
that where one has one sound, the other has the other sound, just as where
sip has [s], zip has [z]. Pairs of words like this are called minimal pairs,
and are used to demonstrate that pairs of sounds are used in a language to
distinguish words from each other. Sound units that distinguish words from
each other are called phonemes. We enclose phonemes in / / (e.g., /s/, /z/)
to distinguish them from sounds ([s], [z]) and ordinary letters (<s>, <z>).

English phonemes

As you have no doubt noticed, there are nearly 40 phonemes of English
(the number varies somewhat from dialect to dialect), while there are only
26 letters in the English alphabet. This is one of the reasons why the alphabet
appears to fit the language so poorly.

Understanding Communication

Understanding Communication

In the biblical story of the Tower of Babel, the people of the world come together to build a
tower that would reach heaven. In a single stroke, their efforts came to naught because
they were besieged by befuddled communication, resulting in breakdown of coordination.
Intended message is frequently mis-communicated, misunderstood, mis-quoted or even
missed altogether because of ineffective interpersonal communication skills.
The ability to effectively communicate with other people is an important skill. Through
communication, people reach some understanding of each other, learn to like each other,
influence one another, build trust, and learn more about themselves and how people
perceive them. People who communicate effectively know how to interact with others flexibly,
skillfully, and responsibly, but without sacrificing their own needs and integrity.
Communication is a significant part of a manager’s job. In today’s team-oriented workplace,
the development of good interpersonal communication skills is an important key to success.
To build the competence and commitment of employees, a manager has to communicate
effectively. Through effective communication, a manager can mobilize the employees
behind an organization’s vision and inspire a conscious and concerted team effort to attain
the vision. The pay-off of effective communication are:

• A more professional image
• Improved self-confidence
• Improved relationships
• Less stress
• Greater acceptance by others

Communication is Transactional
Each person is both sending and receiving simultaneously.
Parties communicating have an impact on each other

Communication is a Process
Changes in events and relationships are part of a continuous flow. Every
communication experience is the result of the accumulation of experiences
preceding the present one. The new experience affects the future ones.

Communication is Sharing Meaning with Others
A rubber in England is an Erasure but it is a condom in America

PRESENTATION SKILLS

PRESENTATION SKILLS

Presentation skills are absolutely essential in almost all work areas. In order to
be effective and impressive in your presentations you need to prepare the
presentation before you actually deliver it. Even experts in communication
need to plan and prepare their presentations in advance.

i If you are not enthusiastic about what you say you cannot expect to
generate interest amongst the audience; Adapt to response – don’t stick
to your plan unnecessarily. If you find that it is not working, alter it to
adapt to the audience.
ii Check room, seating, acoustics, OHT or Computer (depending on what
you decide to use).
iii Vary your tone and pitch. Ensure proper modulation. Everything should
not be said with equal amount of stress. Certain things need to be
emphasized more than others.
iv Memorize your introduction. This will help you to sound confident and
in control.
v Try to involve the audience and respond to their reactions.
vi Keep your sentences short and simple. Use deliberate pauses to
punctuate your speech.
vii Never talk down or up to your audience. Treat them as equals, no matter
who they are.
viii Whenever you make a really important point, pause and let the full
significance of what you have said sink in……before you move on.
ix Don’t put boring tables of figures and long lines of text on the overhead
projector and read them out.
x When showing a visual, keep quiet and give people time to take it in.
xi Welcome questions from your audience. When members of your
audience ask you a question, it is usually because they have a genuine
interest in what you are saying and want to know more. Treat questions
as an opportunity to get your message across better.
xii Know the size and the knowledge level of your audience. You must not
tell them what they already know.
xiii Be clear about the purpose of your presentation – is it to inform or to
persuade.
xiv Key ideas should be emphasized – you must ensure that the importance
of your key points is not lost because of over-emphasis on sub points.
xv Don’t cram – if you have a lot of information to give you could consider
giving some of it through handouts rather than cram all of it into your
presentation.
xvi You must present an outline in the beginning of your presentation so that
your audience knows how your presentation is structured. This should be
well prepared in advance.

Creating effective presentations

Creating effective presentations

Presentation purpose and objectives

Determining the purpose and objectives of your presentation will

help you to focus on the kind of presentation you want to

develop.

What are the objectives of your presentation?

·  Why are you giving this presentation?

·  What do you want to accomplish?

·  What does the audience expect?

·  What do you what the audience to understand?

·  What do you want the audience to remember?

Types of presentations

The type of presentation that you develop is based on the content

of your material, the target audience, and your objectives. Different

types of presentations can include training or teaching a skill or

topic and sharing information.

Training or teaching a skill or topic

This form of presentation is designed to train or teach a new

ability, skill and or trade.

Presentation strategy

·  Introduce the skill or topic you will be teaching/training.

·  Establish the importance of what will be taught.

·  Explain the skill or topic through examples, elaboration, and/or

exercises.

·  Conclude or review the information presented.

·  Suggest ways that your audience can obtain further information

to learn more.

Sharing information

This type of presentation is used to narrow an information gap

between you and your audience.

Presentation strategy

·  Introduce the information you are going to share with your

audience.

·  Explain how it relates to other information.

·  Establish why it is important to share this information.

·  Suggest where this information could possibly lead.

Presentation issues

No matter what strategy you use, there are some issues you should

address to make sure you are supplying your audience with the

information they need.

·  If there are certain aspects of your topic you will not cover, but

could be viewed by your audience as important, you might

want to address these things briefly and explain why you are

not covering them.

·  Determine if you will have to establish the history of your topic

in order to clarify things for your audience.

·  Decide if you will need to establish how the information you

are presenting will benefit your audience.

·  If there is an order to what you are discussing, make sure you

establish that in the beginning; it will make everything clearer

for your audience.

·  Always make sure you have proof to support what you are

talking about. This will establish your credibility as a speaker.

The audience

Knowing your audience is critical when designing your

presentation.

·  How much does the audience

already know about your

topic? This will determine

how much information you

will have to give the audience

at the beginning of your

presentation.

·  Is your audience willing to

accept new ideas?

·  To how many people will

you be speaking? With a small group it might be possible to

have a more thorough analysis of your topic. However, a large

group often requires a presentation to be more general.

Remember the basic objectives of your presentation must meet the

needs and objectives of your audience.

Speech/Presentation development

·  Do not assume the audience knows what you mean; always

define words or phrases for purpose of clarity. How detailed

your definitions are will depend on your audience.

·  Consider limitations imposed by time. Many subjects cannot be

explained or fully developed in the available speaking time.

Under these conditions speeches/presentations must be

narrowed and focused.

·  Pay attention to the amount of time allotted to each portion of

the speech in order to ensure that more weight is given to the

more important aspects of your presentation.

SMART Skills

SMART Skills

Soft skills like leadership, decision-making, conflict resolution, negotiation,
communication, creativity and presentation skills are essential for entrepreneurial success
and for maximizing human capital in any enterprise. When balanced with a good
management team and an effective human resource management system, soft skills
provide a way to get the highest return on the investment in terms of human capital.
While professional skills may open the door of opportunity, soft skills keep you in the
driver’s seat.

Soft skills are critical to all facets of the venture. They can provide great energy
and cohesion for the members of the enterprise. Your success is more secure with an
experienced management team at the top. You don’t want to gamble on the abilities of
you and your cofounders to grow the company at optimal rates through all the different
stages of the enterprise. Finally, your human resource management system allows you to
harvest the creativity of your talent. People leave or lose motivation at different times.
Without the proper system, you can keep making the same mistakes. When appropriate
attention is paid to all the three corners, you begin to maximize and grow the human
capital because you build capacity in the system.

Culture Influences the Oral, Written and Non-verbal Communication skills

Culture Influences the Oral, Written and Non-verbal Communication skills

With globalization of businesses and economies, people with different background, mindsets and cultures are interacting more frequently and human civilization is moving forward faster overcoming disparities of race, religion, colour etc. Progression of modern global managers would increasingly depend upon how well they are able to communicate across varied cultures to achieve common goal of progress of all communities, countries and continents.

Culture has a powerful influence on individuals‟ way of thinking, saying and doing things. It provides a meaningful context on the way people meet, greet and communicate with others for productive cooperation to accomplish common, agreed goals.

Acquiring and sharpening ones‟ cross cultural communication skills assumes strategic importance as it can propel ones‟ career, prop success in competitive environments, reflect individuals‟ commitment to quality / excellence, make them more confident in diverse settings of people from all walks of life and help develop an admirable code of conduct for groups and enterprises.

A culture has three layers – the outer layer or the explicit culture relates to visual realities of dress, food, language, behaviour, habitats etc, the middle layer relates to values and norms of community and finally the inner layer or the implicit culture comprises of assumptions, rules and methods of solving / coping with problems.

Culture may also be identified with geographical areas, profession, hobbies etc. Distinguishing traits of a culture are its stability, complexity, composition and acceptance of outsiders. Culture may also be distinguished on the basis of religion, values, role play, process of decision-making, social behaviour / etiquettes and sense of time and timing.

Like communities and countries, every individual has a territory around himself that he considers as his own. Called „proximics‟ – the study of spatial needs of human beings, it recognizes four spatial zones – intimate, personal, social and public. Their distances vary among cultures and over time, it is now recognized that even contents of these spaces – landscaping, colour schemes, ergonomics, sculptors, artifacts, furnishing, interiors etc, also influence the quality and experience of human interactions.

Culture impacts on non-verbal communication both at conscious level covering dress, business attire for men / women, grooming, business cards, handshake etc and at unconscious level relating to facial expressions, eye-contact, movements of head, shoulders, hand, fingers, body postures, walking etc.

Culture also influences oral communications as people continue to speak foreign language is the same way as they speak own language. It is easier to learn to write than to speak in a foreign language. Speakers must use clear pronunciations of words, look for feedback from listeners, rephrase sentences, avoid talking down to audience and not allow people to finish what they have to say.

Written communications reflect the cultural ethos of a country or region and a good translation requires mastery of both the languages and cultures involved. A few useful tips for writers are using simple / short words, sentences and passages, relying on specific terms, avoiding slang, jargons and idioms, using transitional devices to assist grasping the train of thought and using numbers and pre-printed forms.

IMPACT OF CULTURE ON WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS

IMPACT OF CULTURE ON WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS

Written communication is the art of correspondence. Written language is the vehicle of the cultural ethos of the country or region. Although it is a common practice to translate the written message in to the local language, it is well known a good translation requires mastery of both the languages and more importantly, a deep understanding of the cultures and cultural differences involved.

Although English has emerged as the language of business internationally, we do come across correspondence in French, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Hindi, Urdu etc. It is a major challenge to translate the product catalogue, literature and advertisements in other languages. Besides, translations are required for documents relating to strategy, systems and procedure.
In the contemporary business scenario, people are learning foreign languages to bridge the gap between consumers and product offerings. Even so problems abound and until a good understanding of the cross cultural issues develops, constraints / impediments to communication across cultures would continue.

A few guidelines are:
(1) Use simple, short words
Select simple, short words that do not have multiple meanings.
(2) Rely on specific terms
Specific terms improve understanding. Avoid abstractions and illustrate with examples.
(3) Avoid slang, jargons and idioms
Slang, jargons and idioms do not translate well. Even abbreviations are not understood well across cultures; avoid them.
(4) Construct simple short sentences
Simple short sentences also improve comprehension compared with the long sentences one uses in language one is fluent in.
(5) Use short passages
Stick to the rule of one idea per passage and make it short.
(6) Use transitional devices to facilitate understanding train of thought
Use of transitional words like „In addition, besides, first, second, third etc‟ makes it easier for the reader / listener not conversant with the language.
(7) Use numbers and pre-printed forms
Wherever possible use numbers and pre-printed forms as they are easy to understand.
(8) Emphasize neatness in layout and presentation
Printers and publishers are using different colours for heading and adding other embellishments in printed, written matters to attract attention of readers and retain their interest by inducing them to read on.

IMPACT OF CULTURE ON ORAL COMMUNICATIONS

IMPACT OF CULTURE ON ORAL COMMUNICATIONS

It is more difficult to deal with problems arising from the way people speak a language. They continue to speak the foreign language in the same way as they speak own language. Those who have tried learning a different language would know that it is easier to write in the language than to speak in it.

Another source that adds to the difficulty of understanding the language is when the speakers use idiomatic expressions. These expressions may be well understood in one country but may not make any impression on people from another region.

A few useful tips for oral communication in cross cultural environments are:

(1) Clear pronunciation of words

Foreigners should put in a little extra effort in pronouncing words by pausing at every punctuation sign. This eliminates „noise‟ in communication.

(2) Look for feedback from listeners

Be alert and sensitive to the expressions and gestures of the audience by maintaining good eye contact. In case they show signs of confusion, do not hesitate to check back by asking a straight question like, „Is it clear?‟

(3) Rephrase sentences

If speakers feel that audience has not understood them, they should rephrase their sentences in simpler language by choosing words that are easily understood. Do not repeat the same sentence more loudly.

(4) Avoid talking down to audience

Do not blame the audience for lack of comprehension. It is more appropriate to ask, „Am I going too fast?‟

(5) Allow people to finish what they have to say

If interrupted, audience may miss something useful. Similarly, speakers should not let others complete their sentences.

IMPACT OF CULTURE ON NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

IMPACT OF CULTURE ON NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Culture influences non-verbal communications as much of the gestures, expressions etc result from „clan culture‟. Besides, experts in communication are now convinced that non-verbal communications play a very critical role in every day living:

 They form an integral part of oral, face-to-face communications
 They form the backbone of written communication in terms of layout and other visual aspects of written communication

In modern business communications, non-verbal communications can be at the conscious and unconscious levels. Managers must be conversant with both to be able to use them effectively in cross cultural interactions.

(1) Conscious forms of non-verbal communications

There are several aspects of conscious non-verbal communication that help to create the „first impression‟ on the people. Although these aspects are largely influenced by the climate and other specific conditions, local culture has a profound impact on:

(i) Dress

Most people form opinions about others in the first seven seconds of their meeting. A good sense of dressing contributes greatly to making the right first impression. Dressing appropriately is an art that needs to be acquired although changes in dress codes are happening in many countries rather fast because as the world globalizes, dress sense is also becoming global.
Dress should also include footwear, accessories and even cosmetics / perfumes used.

(a) Business Attire for men

Professional dress may include suit, trousers, sports coat, shirt with collar, necktie etc. Many companies are allowing staff to wear casual dress at work once a week. This may include sports shirts, polo shirts, trousers, sweaters that can be stylish as well as comfortable.

(b) Business Attire for women

Attires for business women include dresses, suits, skirts no shorter than three inches above the knees, pants with blouses etc. Inappropriate dresses are: too tight or too loose blouses, sleeveless, denim, shorts, backless / strapless dresses, sweatshirts, hats etc.
Jewellery, accessories etc should be minimal. It is better to stick to ear studs; make up, to suit but should appear natural.

(ii) Grooming

Besides dressing properly, one should not forget to wear his smile. Remember that one is not dressed for the day until he has worn his smile. Attitude at work should be positive, cooperative and willing to accept responsibilities.

(iii) Business cards

Business card is ones‟ calling card. It represents the person when he is not there; it speaks of the person and his business. Ensure that the business card is attractive, appealing and easy to read. It should convey the message that the person wants people to remember.

(iv) Handshake

Handshake is a common form of greetings when one meets someone. Ones‟ style of handshake tells a lot about him. The correct form of handshake is „to keep thumbs up and toughing webs before wrapping the fingers around the other persons‟ hand. While introducing oneself, the person is expected to offer his hand irrespective of the man or woman except in certain cultures that prohibit women shaking hands with men.
Other forms of greeting like embracing or kissing on the cheeks should be avoided in business gatherings.

(2) Unconscious forms of non-verbal communication

There are several of them and involve:
 Facial Expressions
 Eyes
 Head
 Shoulders
 Hands and fingers
 Body posture

Gestures, expression etc provide cues and clues that supplement ones‟ oral communication. They are vital and yet they should not be learnt as they look artificial. They are not consciously worn as they are intuitive, outward expressions of inward feelings or thoughts. Gestures should be read in clusters and in the context they are made. Single gesture is like a single word that can have many meanings.

Following gestures are best avoided:

 A pointing finger

 A clenched, raised fist

 A finger raised and put vertically on the lips

 Frown on the face

PROXIMICS OR LANGUAGE OF PERSONAL SPACE

PROXIMICS OR LANGUAGE OF PERSONAL SPACE

Animals, birds and fish guard their territories rather aggressively and so do nations. Within a nation, there are well-defined boundaries among different smaller communities. People living within these territories have an allegiance to it and protect these territories even ferociously
American anthropologist, Edward T Hall, concluded that every human being has a territory that it considers to be its own. The area or the space delineated around the body is claimed to be his own like the air space around him. Edward T Hall called it „Proximics‟ – study of the spatial needs of human beings.

Personal space around each one of us have a critical implication for communication and interaction with others and consequently on our behaviour and relations with them. Like all other living beings, humans carry a kind of air envelop around them all the time. However, size of the air-envelop can vary among different cultures. It can also vary between a villager and a city dweller. Besides, status of a person also influences the distance at which a person stands with respect to that person.

(1) Spatial Zones
Edward Hall has identified following four zones that are in the form of concentric circles around human body. Since the distances vary among cultures, density of population and status, each zone has been indicated with a range of distances:

(i) Intimate zone
This zone extends up to 0.5 metre from the body and is considered to have the most important influence on the behaviour of individuals. This is a zone that an individual guards as if it is his own property. Only those very close to the individual are permitted to enter this zone viz., spouse, parents, lovers, close friends and relative. With these persons, not many words are used in communication – whispers take the place of spoken words. Eye contacts, handshake and pat at the back are noticed often. Nature of communication is more intimate.
It has a sub-zone extending to first 0.15 metre from the body. This is a close intimate zone that can be entered only during physical contact.

(ii) Personal zone
This covers the space from 0.5 to 1.2 metres from the body. This is the distance observed during friendly gatherings, social functions, office parties etc. People speak in monotones or use low pitch voice with close friends, colleagues, associates and visitors. Communication is more personal and is carried out in a relaxed and casual way. Much of the responses are spontaneous, leading to important decisions which is the hallmark of this space.

(iii) Social zone
This space extends from 1.2 to 3.5 metres. This space is ideal for formal parties and relationships are mostly official. Most of the business is carried out in this space - a lot of reason and logic comes into play and much of the future planning is done. A man is a social being and this space becomes critical for a person on the move in the hierarchy of business and thus forms the most critical zone.

(iv) Public zone
This zone covers the space beyond 3.5 metres from the body and covers the distance at which people can hear and see. The distance between the person and the group he is addressing or making presentation to would be over 3.5 metres. This zone requires use of more formal language; communication is more detached and impersonal in perception. One has to raise the voice to be heard clearly.

(2) Organizational Proxemics

The subject of proximics is expanding to cover the contents in the spatial zones as they have major influence on dealing and interacting with people - this area of specialization is referred to as „Organizational Proxemics‟ and covers the followings:
 Landscaping
 Colour schemes and other physical settings
 Ergonomics
 Signs, signals, paintings, sculptors and other arte-facts
 Furnishings and interior decoration etc

(3) Implications of Proxemics

Knowledge of Proxemics is being used to secure following advantages in business:
1 Every culture has a well-defined personal space; violation of spatial zones can create wrong impressions, leading to loss of business.
2 In multi-cultural groups, individuals should observe the spatial zones of different groups and interact with them accordingly.
3 Even in small groups, one must find out the boundary limits of spatial zones so as to preclude „bubble-bursts‟ arising from irritation and discomfort.
4 According to Gary Kreps, people have strong territorial emotions about their possessions or objects of which they claim ownership viz., clothes, books, homes and automobiles. Since they protect these territories vigorously, people should ensure that they do not step on someone‟s toes.
5 People from high-context cultural countries including India prefer greater distances that low-context culture nations who have carefree and casual approach to it.
6 The concept of proximics is also reflected in the way meetings are arranged – a round table encourages participation among members.
7 In organizations, people are very sensitive about their seating places, furniture and equipment.
8 Small offices with low ceilings and no windows can generate a feeling of being boxed up, sullen and depressed.
9 Open offices are becoming more popular now as they facilitate greater communication, instant feedback and improved inter-personal relationships.

DISTINGUISHING CULTURE AND RECOGNIZING DIFFERENCES

DISTINGUISHING CULTURE AND RECOGNIZING DIFFERENCES

Since culture has profound impact on all aspects of communication skills, everyone must develop a good understanding of the cultural background and recognize the differences between own culture and the one they are interacting with.

(1) Distinguishing traits of culture
Members of a group would have a lot of similarities in the way they think, speak and do work. A major culture may have several subcultures too. Culture can be identified with geographical areas, professions, hobbies etc. Culture of a management group may be different than that of accountants or lawyers. There may be some common features between football fans and cricket fans. Several distinguishing traits are:

(i) Stability of culture
Whether culture is stable or it is changing rapidly.

(ii) Complexity of culture
Whether it is easy to discern or has several layers that take time to grasp.

(iii) Composition of culture
Whether it has several subcultures as in India or it is homogenous as in USA.

(iv) Acceptance of outsiders
Whether it is closed to outsiders or it accepts outsiders readily.
Everybody needs special training before they become comfortable with a different culture.

(2) Recognizing cultural differences
It is useful to be able to recognize cultural differences. A person in south India nods his head in affirmation differently from a north Indian. If one is not aware of it, it is very easy to take no for yes. In USA, one cannot call a spade a spade because in the American slang, spade is used for black American. Similarly an Australian may compliment someone by saying that „he is a good bastard‟ whereas it may offend an Indian. A few major aspects of culture that distinguish them are:

(i) Religion
North Americans in USA and Canada follow puritan religion and are influenced by their ethics although both the countries have a large number of immigrants settling from many countries of the world. They view material comfort as a sign of superiority and believe money can solve many problems. There are also many societies who condemn materialism.

(ii) Values
People in countries like USA and Canada are more goal-oriented and want work to be done efficiently. It may not be so in India and South Asian countries where unemployment is very high. Managers tend to employ two persons where one would suffice.

(iii) Role play
Culture determines the role people play – what they communicate to whom and in what way. For example in some cultures women play a significant role in business whereas it is not so in Middle East and North African countries.

(iv) Decision making
In many countries in the west, business is dominated by one person, often the CEO who says yes or no to many decisions / deals as is the case in USA and even in Pakistan. In China and Japan, decision-making is a laborious process of reaching consensus otherwise they do not feel comfortable with the decision.

(v) Social behaviour and etiquettes
Culture has deep influence on the social behaviour and etiquettes of the people. Polite manners in one country may be considered to be rude in another. These rules of etiquettes may be formal or informal. Formal rules can be learnt and taught, for example, table manners etc. Informal rules are more difficult to identify and are learnt by observation and then emulating them. Informal rules relate to:

 How males and females should behave
 When and how people can touch one another
 When it is appropriate to call a person by first name

Violation of these informal rules can cause a great deal of discomfort although people loathe talking about them.

(vi) Concept of time
People from USA and Europe tend to be more particular about time – they also want to clinch deals quickly. It is not so in most of Asia, Mexico and Latin America. Japanese are aware of American impatience and say, „You Americans have one terrible weakness. If we make to wait long enough, you will agree to anything‟. Also called „chronomics‟, it is emerging as a new area of interest for distinguishing the attitude of people from different cultures towards time and timing.