Knowledge of the Different Styles While Speaking

Knowledge of the Different Styles While Speaking 

Remember, using high sounding and obscure words do not make you a proficient speaker. The idea

should be to use vocabulary that serves the purpose. You may use simple words and may be successful in putting across your point effectively.

Thus, you have to be able to-

􀁺 Use vocabulary appropriately

􀁺 Adjust the pitch and loudness of your voice according to the demand of the situation.

Often the context and the relationship you share with the listener will determine the style you will have to adopt while speaking. You may be required to use formal language in some situations and can be informal in some other situations. Formal language is the type of language we use for purposes like official reports, business letters and academic writing. Formal language is generally used for written communication (for purposes mentioned above). However, it may also be used for writing personal letters. Informal language is the language used for day-to-day communication and is mostly used while speaking. But it is not normally used on occasions like giving a speech in a meeting or other formal occasions where you are required to speak. Here are some examples of a few occasions and the language that may be used while speaking on such occasions:

SPEAKING

SPEAKING

Speaking is essentially considered to be the most effective skill when it comes to communication. Probably, this is one skill along with listening that we exercise the most. It is also a difficult skill to acquire when a language other than our mother tongue is concerned. There are some other major skills and some sub skills that should be paid attention to in order to develop this skill.
Acquisition of a language cannot be complete unless one is able to speak in that language proficiently. Most English learners find themselves more at ease with reading and writing than speaking.

Speaking features in the second place amongst the four language skills. It is a productive skill, unlike
listening, which is receptive. Thus, it is a difficult skill to acquire especially while learning a language other than your mother tongue. However, with right practice and improvement of the key areas related to speaking, it can be easily acquired.

This skill, also known as Oral Communication skill, is often considered to be the most important skill in language learning (though it is to be remembered that equal importance should be given to all the four skills). Speaking is closely related to listening . You learn to speak a language by listening to the language. So in order to develop speaking skill you will have to be a good listener. Reading and writing in English also contributes to developing your speaking skills.

Out of the four language skills, speaking and writing are productive skills while listening and reading are receptive skills. In speaking and writing you have a message, and a sender and a receiver of the
message. In the case of speaking the sender is the speaker and the receiver is the listener. While in the
case of written communication, the sender is the writer and the receiver is the recipient of the written
product. Some people think that writing is more difficult than speaking. However, this is not true.

Speaking is as challenging as writing. The most important characteristic in case of speaking is that you do not get enough time to organise your thoughts. The listener cannot wait for you to organise your thoughts and then speak. You have to speak fluently, without unnecessary pauses. This makes speaking a challenging task. There are instances of English learners being good at writing but not as fluent in speaking. They can write something correctly, but when they are asked to say the same thing they may falter. Of course, there are specific areas that need to be dealt with for developing your writing skills as well.

Coming back to speaking, this is a slightly difficult skill especially for learners in India as far as speaking English is concerned. You will not find too many people in India who can speak fluent English in the early stages of learning this language, unless they have a good exposure to English (spoken in schools, at home, in social circles etc).

To become proficient in speaking English we need to understand the problem areas and then identify
ways in which we can address those areas.

1. Articulation: Your ability to articulate your thoughts and ideas clearly in unambiguous terms.

2. Pronunciation and diction: The way you pronounce the words in sentence.

3. Use of the right words: Your ability to use the right words to convey your message without fumbling.

4. Pause and emphasis for effect (to convey or emphasize the meaning): Your ability to use
significant pauses and emphasis, especially in public speaking, to gain the audience's attention.

5. Accent: The accent in which you speak. For English, it is advisable that you use a neutral
accent, that is, without interference of your mother tongue. Do not try to imitate an accent blindly. This hampers your ability to speak fluently as you tend to focus more on getting the accent right instead of focusing on what you have to say.

WAY TO BUILD OUR VOCABULARY

WAY TO BUILD OUR VOCABULARY

Vocabulary building can be an interesting exercise. The most important thing is to realize how motivated we are to learn new words. If you are happy knowing the words that you keep using in our day-to-day communication and do not wish to build your vocabulary we may not find vocabulary building exercises interesting enough. we should always start by learning the simple words that you require to communicate in English. However, you cannot stop there. we should keep expanding your knowledge of words and use them while communicating. This will help you immensely in making our communication effective and interesting.

Apart from doing vocabulary building exercises found in good vocabulary building books, we should make it a habit to read good English news papers, magazines, story books and novels on a regular basis. In addition to this, listening to good speakers will also help you in building our vocabulary. (Many people take delight in testing their stock of vocabulary by solving crossword puzzle.)

Vocabulary building is an integral part of language learning. It helps a learner to become a better
communicator. we need good vocabulary to communicate effectively as lack of vocabulary will limit
our expression of thoughts and ideas.

Instead of learning new words at random it is better to adopt a systematic approach towards it. Thorough knowledge of different aspects of vocabulary- meaning relations, collocation, contextual meaning, word formation and idioms and phrasal verbs- will help us systematize the exercise of vocabulary building and enable us to use words properly and appropriately. This knowledge with right practice and a good dictionary are the basic requirements of vocabulary building.

IDIOMS AND PHRASAL VERBS

IDIOMS AND PHRASAL VERBS

Idioms are expressions with two or more words that have a meaning that is different from the meanings
of the individual words. For example, spill the beans means to reveal something. As you can see the
meaning of this idiom is different from the meaning of the individual words- spill/beans. However some association of idea with the idioms and their meanings cannot be denied. Some such idioms are:
Out of the blue: unexpectedly after a long time

Last nail in something or somebody's coffin: something that makes the end or failure of an organization Fly off the handle: get angry

There are innumerable idioms in English that start with some verbs. For example:
Call
Call it a day:
Call a spade a spade
Call the shots
Pull
Pull a fast one
Pull the rug out from under somebody's feet
Pull the strings

There are some idioms that are associated with colour terms. For example,

Out of the blue
Green with envy
Go blue in the face
Bolt from the blue
In black and white

Other common idioms in English are the phrasal verbs. Phrasal verb is a group of words with a combination of a verb and a preposition or adverb, or both. For example, give up
(verb preposition).

Some common phrasal verbs in English are formed with the verbs make, give, look, take and get.
Combining with prepositions or adverbs.

Make
Make out (understand)
Make up (prepare)

Give
Give in (agree, admit, offer for judgment)
Give up (not try, to stop doing something)

Look
Look after (to take care of something or someone)
Look forward to (to fell excited and happy about something that is going to happen)

Take
Take off (succeed, leave, copy)
Take over (start doing a job or something or responsibility that was carried out by someone else before,
get control)

Get
Get through (to succeed in talking with someone on the phone)
Get away (to escape from something or somewhere when it is difficult to do so)

A good dictionary will help you immensely in learning phrasal verbs. Look up the main verb in the
dictionary to find the meaning of the phrasal verbs and their usage.

IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY BUILDING

IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY BUILDING

Words are a very powerful means of expressing ideas and thoughts. How successful you are in using
words effectively will affect your communication skills. Using words effectively does not mean using
vague, high-sounding and obscure words in your speech or writing. It means using the right word in the right context and getting the desired result.

In order to express your ideas and thoughts clearly you need a good and appropriate vocabulary. It is
indeed very frustrating when you want to say something but cannot express it properly because you do not have enough vocabulary. In such a situation, a low vocabulary is a handicap. Again there are times when you say something but are not aware of the implications of your words. Using the appropriate word is important to get the desired result. You may also end up offending someone if you do not know the proper use of a word.

Remember, you cannot build a good repertoire of words for a second language such as English in a day. It takes time. Read good books, listen to interesting conversations and interviews with famous personalities and practice using new words in the right context. Gradually you will pick up words as you use English more frequently for everyday communication.

Increasing your vocabulary will help you use words properly, appropriately and intelligently. Apart from developing the four language skills, grammar, vocabulary building and pronunciation practice will mean an all-round development of English skills. You cannot speak with a natural flow if you have to stop in between or fumble while trying to think of the right words. Starting with simple words you can slowly increase your vocabulary. With the knowledge of the relationship between words- similar words, opposite words- you will be able to systematize and organize your thoughts in a better way. Often learners fail to use phrases and idioms appropriately in sentences which limit their expression. With a proper knowledge of the usage of idioms and phrases you can be more effective in expressing your thoughts.

BRITISH AND AMERICAN PRONUNCIATION

BRITISH AND AMERICAN PRONUNCIATION

 Stressed vowels are often lengthened more in American English than in British. For instance,
the sound of ‘a’ in bad tends to be lengthened in American English, whereas it is a short vowel
in British English.
In American English vowels are often pronounced in a nasalized manner (that is, air is allowed to
pass through the nose as well as the mouth at the same time).
The vowel in the words home, go, so, etc. is essentially a diphthong in British English, but in
American English sounds like a single vowel sound similar to o, as we Indians normally say.
The short vowel sound of ‘o’ as in pot, god, dog, etc. is pronounced like the long vowel sound of
a in calm, palm, charm, etc. in American English.
The usual long vowel sound of a as in British English as in dance, fast, last, glass, after, can't, etc.
are pronounced like the pure vowel sound of a as in man, glad, sad, etc. in American English.
The sound ‘r’ is pronounced in Standard British English only before a vowel sound. It is not
pronounced after a vowel sound as in over, father, mother, brother, sister, etc, unless it is followed
by another vowel sound. However, ‘r’ is pronounced in all positions in a word in American English.
Moreover, ‘r’ is pronounced in American English in a slightly different way.
 The sound of ‘t’ and d between two vowel sounds become slightly different from the sounds of
the letters elsewhere in American English.
Before -u and -ew, the British pronounce t-, d-, d-, and n- like tyu-, dyu- and nyu-. For example,
tune, dew, due, news, etc. In American English such words are pronounced without adding the
sound y.
But again you are advised to learn such differences in pronunciation of the two varieties by listening to good models, such as the news on BBC (British English) and the news on CNN (American English).

INTONATION

INTONATION

When we speak a language, using different kinds of sentences the pitch of our voice may sometimes
rise and sometimes fall. It is such changes in the pitch of our voice that give rise to the phenomenon
called intonation. For example, take the sentence,

                                                         Vijay is a doctor.

If you are making a statement -Vijay is a doctor. - the pitch of your voice will, generally speaking, fall, but when you are turning it into a question, -Vijay is a doctor?- the pitch of your voice will rise. Similarly, when you say 'Yes' with your pitch rising from a lower pitch, it may sound like a question. But if you say 'Yes' with your pitch falling from a higher pitch, it may sound like supporting a statement made by someone.

Apart from the pitch of the voice falling from a higher level to a lower level (falling tone) in a stressed word or a stressed syllable in a word and the pitch of the voice rising from a lower level to a higher level (rising tone), the pitch of the voice may first fall and then rise in the same position (falling-rising tone) and also first rise and then fall (rising-falling tone).  intonation cannot be learnt by reading.
There should be proper practice with a good teacher who can be a model or by listening carefully to
dialogues in films and other audio/visual media or to good audio/visual materials specially designed for this purpose.

PRONUNCIATION-Sentence Stress

PRONUNCIATION-Sentence Stress

A sentence may consist of words having only one syllable (monosyllabic) and words having more than one syllable (polysyllabic). The words having more than one syllable need to be stressed in a more or less fixed way and we cannot take much liberty with them. However, the words in a sentence with only one syllable may or may not be stressed, depending on their importance. For instance, in a sentence like, How could you say such a big lie? All the words have only one syllable. You might put the stress on how, all, big, lie, depending on which of the words you consider important for expressing your intended meaning. Such stressing of monosyllabic words and particularly syllables of polysyllabic words together produce the phenomenon that is called sentence stress.

It may be noted that English sentences are uttered in a rhythmic way and word stress and sentence
stress help a speaker of English to speak English rhythmically. Please note in connection with sentence stress that-
Function words (personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, articles, conjunctions, verb' be'
together with its different forms) are generally not stressed in a sentence unless you have a special
meaning in mind as in the example before. For example, in the sentence you may utter the sentence
"How could you say such a big lie?" with stress on "you" as well if you want to emphasize it.
Content words (nouns, adjectives, verbs (except 'be'), demonstratives, question words, yes /no/not)
are generally stressed. But again it is not obligatory. Depending on the meaning a monosyllabic content word may remain unstressed in a sentence. For instance you may not choose to stress tell in the above sentence, particularly if you choose to stress the word you

The Concept of Neutral Accent & Spelling and Pronunciation

The Concept of Neutral Accent & Spelling and Pronunciation

Accent is defined as the pronunciation characteristic of a particular group of people relative to
another group. It is different from a dialect which is a variety of a language differing in grammar,
vocabulary and pronunciation. When we talk of a neutral accent we do not mean any particular
accent. A neutral English accent in the context of India is pronunciation of English without any
negative influence of a mother tongue or of a regional accent. It is advisable to adopt one of the
chief varieties as a model and maintain consistency in its use. For historical reasons India has been
following the British RP as a model, as already stated. The American accent is beginning to make its
presence felt in India also, especially at the individual (non-institutional) level. One thing worth noting here is that though these are two different varieties, they have far more similarities than differences. It may also be noted that our discussion below is based on Standard British English.

Spelling and Pronunciation

The lack of one-to-one correspondence between the spelling and pronunciation of a word has always
created problems for a speaker of English. In some languages, such as Hindi, a letter is always pronounced in the same way irrespective of its position in a word (beginning, middle, end). So there is no confusion as to how to pronounce that letter. But in English, the same letter or combination of letters can be pronounced in different ways. For example, in the words chef and chap, though the initial letters are the same, the pronunciation is different. Similarly, the letter g is pronounced in two different ways in ginger and gregarious and h is silent in hour but pronounced in horse. It is essential to know the different sounds that a language has so that one can internalize the rules of spelling and pronunciation.

Indian English and Mother Tongue Interference

Indian English and Mother Tongue Interference

In the Indian context your aim should be to overcome the interference of your respective mother tongues in your pronunciation of English. It is often seen that learners of English tend to say English sounds,
words and sentences in the same way as they say them in their mother tongue. Sounds that are absent
in your mother tongue may be difficult for you to pronounce, as you are more accustomed to pronouncing the sounds present in your mother tongue or the language you keep hearing since birth.
Thus your aim should be to speak a variety of English that is non-regional in accent. For this you will
have to adopt one of the two chief varieties, British RP or General American, as a model. However, by following the British RP or General American for that matter, we do not end up as British RP speakers or as speakers of General American English (unless, of course, we have exceptional phonetic gifts or have lived amongst native speakers, communicating with them in English everyday and trying to imitate their accent). By overcoming the negative influences of your mother tongue, you can always acquire a variety of English pronunciation that may be called educated Indian English.

PRONUNCIATION PROBLEMS

PRONUNCIATION  PROBLEMS

It is often seen that learners of English become proficient in speaking but the way they say the words
and sentences makes it difficult for others to understand them. For non-native speakers of English, one of the key challenges is to get the pronunciation right. This means getting the diction, the stress and intonation right when speaking English. It is not uncommon for new learners of English to struggle with these aspects. In this unit we will discuss the issues and problems related to English pronunciation, especially in the context of Indian learners.

For any non-native speaker of English, getting the pronunciation right involves understanding the concepts of varieties of English, accent in the context of English and becoming conscious of how one's mother tongue influences the pronunciation of a new language.

English is the most widely spoken language today with countries from all the continents using it as their mother tongue or a second language. With such a wide geographical spread it is quite natural that it will have different varieties in different countries. Significant differences in pronunciation are also found in different regions within the same country. Though variations, dialectal and otherwise, in a language are a natural phenomenon, a standardized form is always important for a widely spoken language like English.

As far as pronunciation of English goes Standard British English and General or Standard American
English, are the two chief varieties of English and are mostly adopted as models elsewhere for learning English. Within Great Britain there are differences in pronunciation in different regions but the pronunciation acquired through education in the public schools and universities in the country has been accepted as a common standard of pronunciation referred to as Standard British English or RP (Received Pronunciation).

Similarly, there are different varieties of pronunciation within the United States of America. However, certain tendencies are common amongst large number of educated speakers in the country, which is referred to as General American Pronunciation

LANGUAGE

LANGUAGE

We learn a language to use it as a means of communication, to express our thoughts and feelings. We can use our mother tongue so fluently and naturally because we pick it up from birth. So our thought process is also tuned to think in our mother tongue. When we learn a new language, say, English, we not only have to learn how to speak and write in English, but also how to think in English. In fact, learning to think in English is the first step before we speak or write.

The communicative functions that we perform, such as expressing interest, regret, joy, intention or
agreeing or disagreeing or thanking someone are the same in all languages. Languages differ in the
way we express those functions. If we are able to think in the target language (English), then it will be easier to express any function in that language. Learning the grammatical structures is not enough to speak or write proficiently.

Practice thinking in English till it becomes a habit for you. Word for word translation into English will often lead to mother tongue interference in writing. Try to convey the idea in English. Only then will you be able to communicate with minimal errors in any situation you are in. Thinking in English will lead to improvement in the four basic language skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing along with grammar, vocabulary building and pronunciation practice

First Language (Mother-Tongue) Interference in speaking

First Language (Mother-Tongue) Interference in speaking

Mother-tongue interference is the negative transfer of the structure of one’s mother tongue to a new
language that a person is learning. When you are learning a new language you already have the knowledge of your mother tongue. You may transfer this knowledge into the language you are learning. This transfer may have positive effects if the structure of your mother tongue and the new language is the same. But it may influence negatively if the structures of the two languages are different. This interference is known as mother-tongue interference. For example, in most Indian languages the word order (order in which words occur in sentences) is subject-object-verb (SVO) “Maine (I- Subject) aam (object) khaayaa (verb)”. However, in English it is subject-verb-object (SOV) as in, “I (subject) ate (verb) a mango (object).”

Mother-tongue interference can take place, while speaking or writing, vocabulary, at the level of grammar and pronunciation. To overcome these interferences at the level of pronunciation you will have to listen to good Spoken English, learn pronunciation from a teacher who speaks good English and learn from materials specially designed for the purpose of teaching pronunciation to learners. To overcome the interference of your mother tongue at the written level, you should read good English novels, short stories and contemporary drama, newspapers, journals, magazines, etc. In addition to this, you should keep remedying yourself by consulting good dictionaries with emphasis on usage. You may also go through materials dealing with common errors.

THINKING IN ENGLISH

THINKING IN ENGLISH

Since language is not an abstract entity that is used for producing correct sentences, it is not possible for us to learn by heart all the structures of English and use them. We should be able to produce sentences for unpredictable circumstances

Even before you start to utter a word to speak, your thinking process has already formed the sentence
in your mind. This means that your mind has already made a mental image or linguistic text of the order of the words, the grammar and the vocabulary you need to express that thought. This happens so intuitively that you are hardly aware of it, especially when you are communicating in your mother tongue.

Do you ever consciously pause and think about the next word or sentence when you are having a
conversation in your mother tongue? The answer is you do not, simply because the process of forming and arranging the words is so intuitive to you that they seem to come out without any effort. You may not make any grammatical errors while speaking in your mother tongue, irrespective of whether you are using it in a formal or informal situation or to perform any function. Why? This is because it has become a habit for you to think in that language.
Now, when you are in a situation where you have to use English to communicate, you should be able to do so without any awkward pauses, grammatical or syntactical errors or ambiguity. The thought process that creates the text in your mind to speak or write in English should be as natural and habitual for you as it is in your mother tongue. Think about it. It is not as simple as switching by translating from one language to another. This switch should take place in your mind, before you form the sentence that you are about to speak or write. In the beginning you may find yourself translating from your mother tongue to English as you speak. But that is not thinking in English.

The best way to learn how to think in English is to practice it until it becomes a habit. Your thought
process should find its expression in English itself without the help of the mother tongue. This is not
achieved simply by learning to make sentences according to the rules of English grammar. You will
have to be able to use the rules naturally in any situation.
It means you should try to learn the language by actually using the language. Knowledge of grammar is definitely important. But knowing grammar does not guarantee your competence in English or any language. Your goal should be to use English effectively and appropriately. You should be able to
perform a function in any situation you may not have encountered before. If you think in your mother
tongue, translate it and then speak, your speech will not have the natural flow. There is a good chance
that your mother tongue will influence the way you use grammar and how you pronounce. Thus the best way is to listen to, read and speak the language you are learning (in your case English) as much as possible and try to communicate in that language, rather than by consciously learning grammar. You should synchronize your thought process in such a way that you think as well as speak in English in order to communicate for different purposes of your daily life. Initially it may be a process of trial and error for you. You may not be accurate every time, but gradually you will acquire the required competence.

COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH

COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH

Language is the means through which we communicate our thoughts, emotions and feelings to another person. When you learn a new language, your prime objective is to be able to communicate the same to another person. To be able to do this, you will need to learn the structure and grammar, and with it, the nuances of how to say what and to whom. A word or sentence may not be appropriate in a particular context or situation but may be perfect in another situation. For example, it may sound awkward or too formal if you say “I am deeply indebted to you for your help” to a close friend when a simple “thanks” will be much more effective. It may fit in perfectly in a formal office situation. Similarly, there is a difference in the way you write a letter or email to your friend and to your teacher. You should be able to use the language in any context to perform different functions such as expressing gratitude, regret, joy, despair; giving an opinion, agreeing or disagreeing; requesting. This is not possible by simply mastering the rules of grammar though its knowledge is a necessity. Knowing the rules of grammar may help you to write correct sentences but may not help you to communicate effectively. To communicate in English is to use it in every context and situation effectively, both in the spoken and written form.

When we speak of communicating in English, it means communicating through spoken or written words. It does not mean speaking only. A learner of English should aspire to be able to use it for different purposes and get the desired result. You should know what to say, when to say and how to say something.

As mentioned earlier knowing English involves not only producing language correctly, but using language for particular purposes: for example being able to express your thoughts and feelings, give advice in English, make predictions, describe people, make a request, agree or disagree with someone or give instructions. These are called functions. Functions are the same for all languages. So you need not learn the functions; function will be created automatically by the situation in which you have to use language. But you should know how to use English to perform those functions. If you learn the structures of grammar for no obvious reason and do not try to find out when and where to use it you may not become competent to express yourself in English. For instance, you are practicing a series of exercises on going to but do not know exactly how to use it according to the need of the situation. But if you try to talk about your intentions and plans (another function) you are likely to use the structure correctly and know its use.

Personality types and reactions to stress

Personality types and reactions to stress

Scientists have identified a series of different factors that can influence an individual's vulnerability to stress. While age and sex can seemingly make you vulnerable to stress, the major deciding factor is
your personality type. Psychologists have learnt that people respond to stressful situations in different
ways. Everyone has different stress 'thresholds'. Someone with a low stress threshold can become
highly stressed by simple events, such as being late for a meeting or forgetting their keys. But it would take something much more threatening, like failing an exam or moving house, to initiate the stress response in a person with a high stress threshold.

Psychologists talk about two personality types when it comes to stress.

\Type A and B.

People with Type-A personalities are more likely to rush, be competitive and be perfectionists. They often attempt to do two or more things at once and feel guilty when they take time out to relax or do nothing, even if it is just for a couple of hours.

Type-B personalities, on the other hand, are people who can be described as 'laid back '. They are easy going, able to work at a reasonable pace and can 'relax without guilt'.
Not surprisingly, Type A people are much more prone to stress than Type B people. Any event that
disrupts their normal routine or gets in the way of their plans can upset a Type A person, while a Type B person is much more able to take the world in their stride. They tend to be more adaptive in their thinking and are better at putting things in perspective, thinking through how they are going to deal with a situation rather than just stressing over it as a Type A person would.