Aspiration (phonetics)

 Aspiration (phonetics)

In phonetics, aspiration is the strong burst of air that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. To feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of one's mouth, and say pin ([pʰɪn]) and then bin ([bɪn]). One should either feel a puff of air or see a flicker of the candle flame with pin that one does not get with bin. In most dialects of English, the initial consonant is aspirated in pin and unaspirated in bin.

VOWEL COMBINATION

·         A vowel combination is a combination of two or three vowels, or of a vowel and at least one consonant, that is associated with one or more specific single sounds. For example, ea has the sounds /long e/ and /long a/; ay has the sound /long a/, and igh has the sound /long i/. These vowel combinations are sometimes called digraphs, diphthongs, trigraphs, and triphthongs.

·         Vowel combinations occur in three different forms in written English:

·                                 1- Vowels often appear in clusters within a single syllable. This is the most common form.

·         2- Vowels often appear in combination with a particular consonant or consonants which, together, represent a sound unit that is different from what you would expect if you didn't know the specific combination. For example, the o in old has the /long o/ sound, but if you didn't already know that already, you would think that the o in cold was short.

·         3- Another common combination in English is one or two vowels followed by gh. The gh is usually silent. It is usually easier to decode the whole unit (igh, eigh) than to process the vowel and the gh separately.

Monophthongs

A monophthong consists of only one vowel sound that does not change during its articulation; i.e., it starts and ends in the same quality, and the speech organs do not change their position during its pronunciation. Monophthongs are also called simple vowels, pure vowels, or stable vowels. American linguists list from 9 to 12 monophthongs in American English, generally 11 monophthongs: [a:], [æ], [i:], [i], [e], [o:], [o], [u:], [u], [ər], [ə].

English voiceless stop consonants are aspirated for most native speakers when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable, as in pen, ten, Ken. They are unaspirated for almost all speakers when immediately following word-initial s, as in spun, stun, skunk. After s elsewhere in a word they are normally unaspirated as well, except when the cluster is heteromorphemic and the stop belongs to an unbound morpheme; compare dis[t]end vs. dis[tʰ]aste. Word-final voiceless stops optionally aspirate.

Strategies for Students of ESL (English as second language)

·         Strategies for Students of ESL (English as second language)

The following strategies are meant to assist ESL students in improving their reading skills on their own.

·         Review each paragraph after reading it. If you are confused, find the topic sentence, again.

·         Look for transitional words, phrases and paragraphs, which change the topic.

·         Read the first and last paragraph of your text or the first sentence in each section.

·         Monitor if you have missed an idea, backup and reread.

·         Pay attention to vocabulary. Collect new words in a notebook especially for that purpose. Look up the new word in a dictionary and study its meaning. Try to fit the right synonym into context of the sentence. It is a good idea to learn the antonym of the word at the same time. Reading for vocabulary is very important in improving your reading comprehension.

·         When you are building your vocabulary, concentrate on roots, prefixes and endings. This will help you tremendously to recognize new words you will come across.

·         Ask yourself questions about each paragraph. Write the answers down in a notebook.

·         Move ahead on your own, reading as much as possible in the new language. Broaden your background knowledge by reading as many magazines, newspapers and books that you possibly can.

·         Get together with classmates and discuss reading material. This is a great way to improve comprehension.

Strategies for Teachers in teaching ESL

·         Strategies for Teachers in teaching ESL

The following simple strategies should help teachers to improve ESL(teaching English as second language) reading skills among their students.

·         Basic English grammar and acquisition of vocabulary are important tools towards the students’ reading comprehension. Before introducing students to reading comprehension, ensure that they understand English words and can associate meanings with the words.

·         Set the pattern for students to follow. In the introductory reading lesson, read a simple passage from a school textbook, fiction or non-fiction book. Students should be provided with copies of the text being read, so they could follow along; however, reserve magazines and newspapers for when students reach an advanced level.

·         While reading the first passage, stop at certain points and explain what you have read. Explain the author’s purpose before, during, and after reading the passage. Ensure that students are familiar with the vocabulary and give them the meanings of words or expressions, which are new to them.

·         Now, it is the students’ turn. Provide them with a text, which they will take turns at reading. Indicate written prompts at certain points in sections or paragraphs where they should stop to discuss what they have read and understood. These prompts would help students to begin expressing their thoughts. Some of these prompts might include: I think…; I noticed…; I like the part where…; I don’t believe/think…” Before beginning the lesson, students should acquaint or re-acquaint themselves with these expressions.

·         Ask them meaningful questions about the content of the passage and the author’s purpose.

·         Allow the class to engage in discussion after each passage read by each student.

Thank-you Note

 Thank-you Note

In today's job market, sending a post-interview thank-you note can be the difference between landing the job and being completely overlooked. Yet, over half of job seekers never send one,

"It's not elective, it's mandatory. "It instantly gives you a competitive distinction to everyone else they're interviewing." 

But a generic, "Thank you for your time" won't cut it.  You'll want to really stand out from the competition.

Here are five elements of an outstanding thank-you note:

1. Reiterate skills, experience, and accomplishments.

"Even though you might have shared them during the interview, everybody doesn't hear everything that you say," Enelow explains. Give specific examples that show the hiring manager why you'd be a good fit for the position, and distinguish your skill set from the competition. 

However, don't mention anything unrelated to the job at hand. If you're interviewing for a sales job, talk about your previous experience in sales, not accounting. "All they care about is that job," Enelow says.

2. Supplement your interview answers.

Use the thank-you note as an opportunity to expand on points you made during the interview or to add additional information you want the company to know.

But again, remember to keep it concise and job-specific.

"If you feel like you didn't quite answer a question or couldn't think of something at the time, you could mention that,". For example, you could say, "You asked about my experience in the Middle East region, and I forgot to mention that I did this research project on ... ." 

This is also a great opportunity to send any links to projects, news stories, or websites you may have mentioned during the interview. 

3. Share ideas.

Share an idea of how you would solve a problem, overcome an obstacle, or meet a challenge faced by the company. This proves that you understand the employer's goals and can immediately become part of the team.   

"It makes somebody think, 'Wow, this person is really interested in the company, really listened to what I said to them, and already has good ideas,'" Enelow says. She suggests a straightforward approach, such as, "I was thinking about the issues you're having around your new product launch, and I might offer the following suggestions … ."

4. Dismiss any potential objections.

Whether the interviewer verbally brought up an objection, or you could just sense her unease, address potential issues head-on to dispel any skepticism. Enelow says: " Maybe you know how to use three different financial software systems, but aren't necessarily familiar with theirs. Then you would write something like, 'For the past 15 years, I've used a number of different financial management software packages, and I'm sure it won't take me any time to get up to speed with yours.'" 

This is your chance to overcome any doubt in the interviewer's mind that you're the perfect candidate by showing her exactly why she shouldn't worry. 

5. Be proactive.  

Close your email or handwritten note by showing that you want the job and will actively continue to pursue it. "Always include an action," Enelow advises. For example, if the company is still looking at other candidates, say, "I understand that you're interviewing other applicants, but I will be certain to follow up in two weeks because I'm particularly interested in this opportunity."

Bottom line: No matter job you're applying for or what content you choose to include in your thank-you note, keep it succinct and polite.

Origins of English

Origins of English

The origins of English begin with a major influence from Germanic tribes from Saxon regions. These effectively replaced the Celtic tribes (also originally from Germany) pushing them north to Scotland, west to Wales and Ireland and south-west to Devon and Cornwell.

Anglo-Saxon

The Anglo-Saxon language, sometimes called Old English, was, like German, a high inflected language. There was declension of nouns and adjectives as well as conjugation of verbs. Nearly every word had a special ending to show its grammatical function. Anglo-Saxon

vocabulary absorbed very few words from Celtic languages. More words were adopted from Latin during the 200-year Roman occupation of England and Wales (55 BC – 150 A.D). The

influence from Latin continued with missionaries from Rome spreading the Christian religion. Starting in 787 AD Viking raids brought influence from Norse. The area of England north of

a diagonal line from London to Chester fell under the rule of Denmark which led to further influence from Scandinavian languages.

In 1066 the Norman French armies of King William 1 invaded Britain and quickly gained control of most of England. The Normans brought with them French habits and French language. For some years England was bilingual with the Norman rulers speaking French and the Anglo-Saxon peasants speaking Old English.  This led to the development of Middle English during the 12th century. During the 11th and 12th centuries Old English gradually lost most of its grammatical inflections. A few remained as we can see in the forms of some high frequency irregular verbs [speak / spoke/ /spoken,

write / wrote / written, break / broke / broken], the ‘s’ in 3rd person singular verbs and the ‘Saxon’ genitive (Peter’s).

Gradually, English became a language with largely Latin based vocabulary and a simplified German grammatical system.

Circles of English users&Different Englishes?

Circles of English users&Different Englishes?

English, as a world language,  relatively small number of native speakers is less important than the very large number of non-native speakers who use English as part of their everyday lives. It is very difficult to estimate the precise number of English Language Users who are not native speakers. David Crystal writing in 1995, suggested there were between 320 and 380 million native speakers of English in countries such as Ireland, Guyana, Malta, Australia,New Zealand, Canada, U.S.A., Wales, Scotland and England. There are another 150 to 300 million people who use English as a major part of the lives in countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Ghana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Uganda, or Kenya because it is one of the ‘official’ languages of their country. There is also a much larger group of between 100 and 1,000 million who live in countries where English is the first choice of foreign language within the education system.

Of course, not all of these people speak ‘BBC English’. We all know of the differences between American English and British English, but what are the differences between Indian English and Australian English? Certainly, there are differences, but does this mean an Indian English speaker will not understand an Australian English speaker.

We judge the differences between languages by level of ‘comprehensibility’ or incomprehensibility’. Argentinean speakers of Spanish can comprehend understand Mexican speakers of Spanish and vice versa.

Their languages are ‘mutually comprehensible’. in the same way, Jordanian speakers of Arabic can understand Moroccan speakers of Arabic. They will speak with different accents, they will have some differences in vocabulary and possibly also in structure, but they will be mutually comprehensible.

A monolingual speaker of Dutch will understand quite a lot of German and even more of Afrikaans, but less of Swedish. The monolingual Dutch speaker will not be able to understand Hungarian, Finnish, or Arabic because these languages are ‘mutually incomprehensible’.

Perhaps surprisingly considering the very wide geographical spread of English, the different varieties are all largely ‘mutually comprehensible’. If we compare written forms of English mutual comprehensibility is even stronger.

Culture: English, the world’s second language

Culture: English, the world’s second language

Alone among world languages, English is more widely used as a second language than as a native language. If we define English Language Users as people who use the English language regularly (at least once a week or once a month), then there are more English

Language Users who would give a different language as their native language than there are people who would say they were native speakers of English.

Since 1750, the population of the world has grown rapidly from less than one billion to six billion in 1999. Projected population growth foresees a continuing rise to eight billion in 2027 and reaching about ten billion in 2250. After 2250, it is projected that population growth will stabilize at about ten billion.

Although there are an estimated 7,000 different languages spoken in the world, it is estimated that 50% of the world population speaks one of the top twelve languages as a native language.

English does NOT have the largest number of native speakers. In 1950, English was clearly in second place compared with Chinese. Currently, English is spoken as a native language by about as many people as speakers of Spanish and Hindu/Urdu but these numbers are all much smaller than the number of Chinese speakers. Because of differences in population age and population growth, English will very soon be overtaken by Spanish and Hindu/Urdu. By 2050, Arabic may well have replaced English as fourth most popular native language.

Language Contact and Code-Switching/Mixing

Language Contact and Code-Switching/Mixing

What is language contact?

CONTACT, a term used in sociolinguistics to refer to a

situation of geographical continuity or close social proximity (and thus

of mutual influence) between languages or dialects. 

The result of contact situations can be seen linguistically, in the growth of loan

words, patterns of phonological and grammatical change, mixed forms of language (such as creoles and pidgins), and a general increase in bilingualism of various kinds. In a restricted sense, languages are said to be ‘in contact’ if they are used alternately by the same persons, i.e. bilinguals.

 Considering the bulk of literature produced on language contact issues in the last decades, one cannot but be surprised that definitions of language contact are scarce. While some definitions are rather simplistic, others are more specific as regards the elements involved. 

The definition quoted above has, in my view, two advantages. On the one hand, it is explicit about the different meanings of the term ‘contact’. On the other, it incorporates several elements of relevance such as geographical continuity, social proximity, alternating use, bilingualism and bilingual speakers. I do not intend here to provide my own definition of language contact but discuss the main elements any good definition should include by linking such elements to the specific contact situations .     

Any definition of language contact includes three basic elements, namely: two or more languages, the speakers of these languages, and a socio-cultural setting in which contact takes place. Of course, this is a simplification of facts since every contact situation is different, depending on a large number of variables going from the strictly linguistic to the social.

Contact involves two or more languages or dialects of one language. In the latter case we speak rather of dialect contact. In the Ecuadorian Highlands, for example, an intensive contact exists between speakers of urban and rural dialects of Spanish, and between the Mestizo speakers of these dialects and the Indian speakers of Spanish. 

Their contact led to a dialect continuum stretching from standard urban varieties of Spanish to interlanguage varieties of second-language Spanish spoken by Quichua native speakers in the cities, where they migrate seasonally for work.

The same continuum is reported for dialects of Quichua, faced. On the one side are the speech communities; on the other, the individual speakers. A tendency prevails in language contact studies which focuses on languages (a systemic approach) and speech communities (a social approach). Individual speakers are generally set aside from the discussion, thereby obscuring the fact that speakers are the real agents of language contact. Considering both speech communities and individual speakers enables a more comprehensive interpretation of socio-linguistic factors such speaker’s perceptions and attitudes towards language contact and its outcomes. Moreover, an speaker approach opens a largely unexplored field in contact linguistics: the psycho-linguistic processes at work when two or more languages or dialects are in contact. address the individual dimensions of bilingualism in the analysis of borrowing.

The socio-cultural setting is the third element of language contact. Sociocultura To state that language contact is as old as language itself may sound as an exaggeration to the ears of those who consider languages self-contained entities developing on their own, but it is less so if we think for a moment that it is not languages per se that are in contact, but speakers. In these terms, language contact is expected every time two or more groups of speakers meet, and thus language contact implies as much motion of people as transfer of languages. 

To what extent the borrowing of lexicon and grammar is rule-governed in language contact and reflects the internal organization of the languages involved, and to what extent social and cultural factor  play a role in such process are the main questions I attempt to answer.

Most Indians living in a multi-lingual setting use more than one language. If educated, they use English as well as their mother tongue (the regional language in most cases). If living in areas where Hindi is a lingua franca, most of them use Hindi in addition to their mother tongue. Indians in a multi-lingual setting often switch from one language to another.

The switching occurs not only at a passage/sentence level (code-switching) but also at a phrase/word level (codemixing). The switching and the mixing seem to be done in order to make communication smoother between the speakers or to make a conversation more effective. Indians seem to do the switching and the mixing consciously at sometimes and unconsciously at other times. The reason why many Indians often change, switch and mix one language to/with another is that India is a multi-lingual nation and more than one language is complementarily used particularly in the urban areas where people from different places get together. Therefore, one language is not at all enough for urban Indians’ communication. Even when talking with one person about one topic, many Indians prefer changing one language to another. It seems that they speak more than one language so that they feel the conversation more comfortable and effective.

Linguistic diversity, multilingualism &The Role of “English-Medium Schools” in India

Linguistic diversity, multilingualism &The Role of “English-Medium Schools” in India

Nowadays there are between 5,000 and 7,000 languages in the world. It is difficult to know the exact number of languages because the distinction between a language and a dialect is not always clear. In fact languages are not isolated entities and in many cases there are no clear boundaries between them, it is rather a continuum that extends along a geographical area.

Linguistic diversity has been defined in a broad sense as the ‘range of variations exhibited by human languages. The Ethnologue  considers that there are 6,912 languages in the world today, but some of the languages included are just considered varieties or dialects in other accounts.

Three-Language Formula

As is mentioned above, India enjoys too many languages to choose a sole official/common language. However, any nation needs (more than) one common language to communicate one another and to unite the nation. Of course, in terms of efficiency and economically it is better for a nation to have the least number of languages as an official language. “The Three-Language Formula”, India’s most representative language policy, is a compromise between different linguistic groups in India. Though the term “the Three-Language Formula” is seldom used by the government of India in official documents, the term is widely accepted and used.

The Three-Language Formula was worked out as a way of accommodating the interest of each linguistic group. The formula is a policy to encourage them to choose and learn three languages at school. The first one of the three languages, in most cases, is speaker’s mother tongue/regional language while the second one is Hindi (a language of national pride and unity). And the last one is English (a language of administrative efficiency, technological progress and international communication).

The Role of “English-Medium Schools” in India

It is necessary to know about “English-medium schools” in India so that we can understand how English in India has been produced. “English-medium schools” are educational institutions where English is used as a medium of instruction. “English-medium schools” vary from school to school. Some have poor facilities and some are well equipped. Some English-medium boarding schools called “public schools” have deluxe facilities as well as well-trained/highly qualified teachers and gather children only from the upper class families. Such “public schools” in India can be regarded as an imitation of public schools in Britain. At “English-medium schools”, all the subjects except Indian languages like Hindi are supposed to be taught through English. At boarding schools called “public schools”, students have to use English all day long. At some “public schools”, students are punished if they use their mother tongue.

Naturally, students become good at English simply because they are forcibly exposed to English and cannot help using it. Generally speaking, the higher the course is, the more frequently English is used as a medium of instruction. Almost all colleges and universities in India prepare courses whose medium of instruction is English while most municipal elementary schools in India are supposed to use the regional language as a medium. However, there are such elementary schools and even kindergartens, mostly private, adopt English as the medium. In such schools and kindergartens, very small children with a still insufficient command of their own mother tongues are forced to use English. Consequently, not a few children feel English the most comfortable.

 Consequently, some children speak English instead of their mother tongue even when they talk with their family at home. “English-medium schools” are virtually producing the elite of the country.

Naturally, those with upward mobility want to send their children to “English medium schools” as long as their finances allow. English, in many aspects, is one of the most important keys to make a success in life in India. Even though they forget their mother tongue as a result of learning at “English-medium schools”, they rush to such schools to receive education through English. Apart from whether it is right or wrong, English can be said to be the most important language to educated Indians and is indispensable to Indian society.

ENGLISH IN INDIA : IT'S STATUS, ROLE AND FUNCTION

ENGLISH IN INDIA : IT'S STATUS, ROLE AND FUNCTION

Why do you think we need to talk about the status, role and function English in India? We need to talk about these terns because they, to a very large extent, govern tile importance of English in India.

 Perhaps this can be explained wilt the help of an Analogy. Let me offer you some food for thought! I am sure most of us are familiar with various types of delicacies associated with certain cuisines. Most of us are familiar with Chinese cuisine. Soup, noodles and Manchurian is what immediately comes to our mind and not its actual delicacy which is 'Peking Duck'. 

Why is this? This is because the status of Chinese cuisine has become totally Indianised over the years. The availability of 'Indian Chinese' is no longer restricted to restaurants or hotels but can readily be found at roadside mobile vans. Our taste buds whole-heartedly welcome tile flavor of Indian Chinese noodles, which tlie Chinese would perhaps totally disown, if they were to get a taste of it  Indian family has the option of having this interesting diversion at least once a week. You may be wondering why we are talking about Chinese cuisine. What is the connection between this cuisine and English language'? Well, there certainly is a common link. Both have become an integral component of our lives, playing vital

roles, Indian Chinese cuisine in satisfying our palate on the one hand and English language - in satisfying our practical need for social mobility, opportunity, Powel and communication on the other hand. After all, aren't food and language two of our basic needs!

English in India, has the status of 'associate official language'. It is also popularly referred to as a second language. It has die status of a second language as we in India acquire and use one or more Indian language(s) as our first language.

The roles and function of English are innumerable. Its need can be discerned in every domain -administration, bureaucracy, education, science and technology, judiciary, trade and commerce. It is not only in tiles public domains that the knowledge of English is considered an essential necessity but also it is very important to take care of our personal 'communicative needs as well. Whether it is applying for school admission or a job, facing an interview, opening a bank account, ordering a meal, working as a receptionist or simply being a tourist guide at Taj Mahal - the need for English is felt by each one of us in our daily lives. The youth, especially, seem to be favorably

inclined towards the language as they perceive it as significant for their career advancement.

It is actually the domain of education most interested in. So let's talk about its role in this sphere. English is learnt for a period ranging from six to twelve years depending on whether a child goes to ail English medium school or an Indian language medium school. In English medium schools, children get exposure to the language as a subject and as a medium instruction as well.

However, in Indian language medium schools, children get limited exposure to English, only as a subject, which is taught like any other subject History, Math’s or Science.

At the level of higher education, English in India plays a central role especially in fields of pure applied sciences, medicine, law, management, etc.

Going further up the ladder after higher education, job opportunities, social advancement, prestige, power become issues of consideration and English is often perceived as the language fulfilling these aspirations.

In the course of the spread of English all over the world, its role and functions diversified and multiplied in virtually all major walks of life. This increasingly led to a demand for English education in India. The practical value of the language and its benefits have contributed to Indian learners having a high motivation and positive attitude towards the English language. Although there is no major English speaking community in India, it is possible to learn and practice. English outside the formal educational setting: radio, TV, internet, books, newspapers, magazines are all readily available and accessible.

Although English is spoken as a first language in the five countries mentioned below-American English, British English, Canadian English, Australian English and New Zealand English-all differ in significant ways from each other. Not only that, English within each country lends itself to several varieties, each variety being distinct because of several factors - social, personal, geographical boundaries. 

We'll appreciate this better if we compare this to Hindi being spoken differently in Eastern U.P. (Bllojpuri and Avadhi) as compared to M.P.(Chattisgarhi and Bhageli) In Britain itself we have several varieties. All the varieties are' generally marked by a distinct accent, words and their usage. If yo11 have heard Tony Greg and Geoffrey Boycott giving cricket commentaty, you would understand that though both speak British English the e former speaks the Standard variety while the latter, the Yorkshire variety.

Let us consider a few examples from British English and American English and see Non-native varieties of English are all those varieties which are spoken as second or foreign languages. In other words, in all these diverse cultural contexts, English is not their first language.

 English in these socio-cultural contexts is learnt at different

stages, for different purposes, goals and aspirations. Since there is already a presence of another language, such as Hindi, Bangla, Tamil, etc. which is acquired as a first language, these languages have a considerable influence on English. When this happens, English begins to sound quite different in each context, with its own flavor and nuances.

'Indian English' has emerged in India which is systematically different from Standard British English. However, we must keep this in mind that this deviation is in no way a failure to learn English but a natural consequence of prolonged use of the language in the social context in which it is spoken. Consequently 'IndianEnglish' is an outcome of the 'Indianisation of English' which is culture bound in the socio-cultural context of India.

MULTILINGUALISM AN OVERVIEW

MULTILINGUALISM AN OVERVIEW

Language differences are at the root of identity for many peoples. Language is concomitant with tribe or ethnicity in many parts of the world and in some countries is a major factor defining minorities (e.g., Berbers in Algeria, Slovenes in Austria).

 In the United States it is language that unifies the fastest growing minority group—Latinos—who come from many different countries and cultures.

Despite the importance of language as a source of identity as well as a stimulus for discord, language differences do no usually stand out as a major concern for diversity management in corporations.

This memo explores the history of language and, the relationship between cultures and language and analyzes the implications of this information for management.

Definition of the Concept of Multilingualism

Linguistic diversity - multilingualism - is,  found in most present-day nations.

A multilingual person is defined as one” able to speak more than two languages with approximately equal facility”.  It is the  same phenomenon as the” linguistic behavior of the members of a speech community which alternately uses two, three or more languages depending on the situation and function”.

How Does Multilingualism Develop?

There are four different kinds of historical patterns that can lead to societal multilingualism. These patterns are migration, imperialism, federation and border area Multilingualism.

In this context, the pattern of imperialism.  The subtypes of imperialism are colonization, annexation, and economic imperialism.

Typical of imperialist processes is that relatively few people from the controlling nationality take up residence in the new area. Former British, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch colonies in Africa, Asia and South America can serve as examples.

Although relatively few people come to live in the subjugated territories, the language becomes very important in the territory.  Spolsky, too, remarks that the larger the scale of Colonization from the homeland is, the more secure place the conquerors’ language will be in the new land, although even a small ruling group may be able to maintain their language, provided they have contact with the homeland. Often in this case, the conquered people will be forced to learn the language of the conquerors .In annexation and colonization, the imperialist language is likely to be used in government and education; in economic imperialism, the imperialist language is necessary for international commerce and finance: a foreign language will become widely used because of the economic advantage associated with it.

The Indian Case

There are over 900 million people and more than one thousand languages in India; the area is thus one of the most diverse linguistic and cultural areas in the world. Thus, it comes as no surprise that there are many problems in classifying and labeling languages in India.

One reason is that languages tend to fade into other ones, so that it is difficult to say which different languages are, or which are just dialects of one language

In 1971, it was estimated that the rate of bilingualism in India was 13%. 99% of English speakers are second-language speakers, whereas in many other languages there are no non-native speakers at all (although there are large numbers of native speakers. Spolsky describes the situation on the Indian subcontinent as one highlighting the”multitude of Problems facing a political unit that contains a great number of languages”. He further points out that it comes as no surprise that India has some difficulty in setting up a language policy: the constitution, for example, avoids choosing a single official language.

There is no accurate survey of the number of speakers of English in India. In examples of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar of Indian English. Later, we would like to examine the possibilities of non-native Englishes for international 1999 the population of India has reached a billion. It is said that in the subcontinent the middle class people, particularly in the urban areas, are said to have a sufficient command of English.

It is estimated that 10-20 percent of the population in India is

classified into the middle class. Therefore it is possible to estimate that there are 100-200 million fluent speakers of English in India. Including the number of imperfect speakers of English who can manage to communicate through English, the total number of the speakers of English may reach 300-400 million. Moreover, if we add the number of speakers of English in the subcontinent, the total number of speakers of English must be more than that by far. It really is a figure that cannot be ignored.

Difference Between ESL and EFL

 Difference Between ESL and EFL 

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) typically take place in a foreign country, usually with students from the same country. In contrast, English as a Second Language (ESL) classes takes place in an English-speaking country, with students from all different backgrounds.

·         English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) require two different strategies for teaching for a number of reasons. Most people don’t know the difference between the two and don’t consider the difference when they set out to teach English. It’s important to know what each one is so that the different needs of the students can be met.

EFL is where the teacher teaches English to students in a country where English isn’t the native language. For example, a Indian student learning English in India would fall under this category.

On the other hand, ESL is where English is taught to students in a country where English is the primary language. An example of this is where a Indian  student is learning English in Australia. The  difference between ESL and EFL might seem little at first, but they do require very different teaching strategies to meet the aims and objectives of the students.

·         Differing Strategies

For starters, an ESL classroom is far more likely to have students from many different countries, all with different native languages, whereas an EFL classroom isn’t. In this instance, the teacher needs to be prepared for different cultures and different linguistic mistakes along the way.

A student from India, for example, is going to have different pronunciation mistakes from a student that comes from France. On top of this, when students learn a foreign language, they transfer (translate) from their mother tongue to the target language. In this instance, they will have different grammatical mistakes when learning, and the differing mistakes need to be accounted for in the teaching strategy.

On the other hand, a classroom of EFL students will usually all be from the same country. They will have the same culture and make similar mistakes in the target language. Therefore, these mistakes can be rectified by the teacher as a whole rather than individually with the ESL learner.

Moreover, ESL students will also have a different reason for learning English. If they are living in an English speaking country, they will definitely have a communicative need for learning English very quickly so that they can go about their everyday lives with ease. An EFL student is far more likely to be learning the language for academic purposes and the emphasis of teaching will be different.

Students are usually more receptive to learning reading and writing and less concerned with speaking and listening, unless they work in an industry where they will communicate with other English speakers. Therefore, the teacher will be required change his or her teaching strategy depending on the needs of the students.

As can been seen above, it’s important that a teacher knows the difference between ESL and EFL in order to change their strategy to better suit the needs of the students. The students and their needs should always be the highest consideration when determining the best teaching strategy to employ in the classroom.