NEGOTIATION AS A PART OF MANAGERIAL SKILLS

NEGOTIATION AS A PART OF MANAGERIAL SKILLS

Negotiation is a process of conferring, discussing and bargaining with two or more parties with different needs and wants to reach agreement. Negotiation is at the heart of selling any product or service, clinching orders for purchasing / procurement and resolving conflicts / disagreements among management and union, nations, communities and individuals.

Successful negotiators are rated as effective by the parties in dispute, have a track record of significant success and have low incidence of implementation failures. They have markedly different behaviour as they avoid use of „irritators‟, offer fewer counter proposals, avoiding getting in to „defend- attack spiral‟ and avoid dilution of agreement. They often give advance indication of behaviour supporting agreement, give reasons before indicating disagreement, resort to testing understanding by summarizing, seek more information and share own feelings to build trust.

Negotiations must be planned meticulously by spending quality time in preparations, exploring range of options available, focusing on common grounds, freeing issues from sequencing and scheduling, concentrating on long term issues and setting the maximum, the minimum and the target values for issues under negotiations.

In general, process of negotiations follows three patterns – firstly, giving ones‟ point of view, secondly, giving ones‟ point of view while simultaneously analyzing others‟ objections and own counters and thirdly, finding and enlarging common grounds of agreement. Skilled negotiators adopt the third pattern.

Researchers have identified four styles of negotiations – factual, intuitive, normative and analytical. Individuals should determine own style of negotiations and enhance their negotiation skills.

Negotiating power is individuals‟ ability to influence others‟ decisions and is dependent upon others‟ perception of ones‟ capability. Negotiating power is not a physical force nor does it advocate starting tough and soften up later. Sources of negotiating power are linked to power of skills, knowledge and good relationships.
 This negotiating power can also flow from seeking good alternatives to negotiations, finding elegant solutions and remaining legitimate and committed.

Bargaining is integral to the process of negotiation and is more pronounced in individual and collective forms of employee relations. In such situations there are two extreme positions – pure negotiations or joint problem solving. Several bargaining models are available but the most popular one has four stages viz. initial positioning, testing positions, giving concessions and arriving at settlement. Bargaining involves skills of analysis, ability to argue effectively, signal cooperation and an eye for details.

Business Reports

Business Reports

A report is a method of giving information about something seen or investigated. It is a formal presentation and is written complete with conclusions reached and recommendations made. It provides background material and relevant information in decision-making and action-taking.

It is rightly said that reports carry information from those who have it to those who need it. They reflect flow of information and have become integral part of modern information management for decision-making.

Reports have become, over time, basic management tools for decision-making. These are extremely important for firms that have grown in size. All the facts and figures cannot be masterminded by one individual like a proprietor / entrepreneur does in a small enterprise.

For larger firms, reports are indispensable. They have emerged as a very good way of ensuring participative management for better decision-making and carrying the business forward faster on the path of growth and expansion.

Communication skills as vital job requirement

Communication skills as vital job requirement

Human beings are communicating all the time. Ability to express powerfully and influence the attitude and behaviour of people for giving better performance on their jobs, has emerged as a job skill of critical importance for managers / leaders at all levels of management. Thus all employees are expected to:

1 Write good correspondence
2 Be good in oral conversation
3 Develop and cultivate powerful body language
4 Be able to sell ideas and products effectively
5 Be very good in weaning away customers from competitor and retaining them

It is now increasingly understood that even specialists like accountants, engineers, technicians etc should have good communication skills. In the present day knowledge society, competitive advantage of acquiring excellent communication skills cannot and perhaps need not be emphasized!

ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

As a rule, factories process materials, offices process words and data are processed in both factories and offices. When IBM introduced its first electronic typewriter – „Selectric‟, in 1964, little did they realize that it would become the precursor of revolutionary changes in communication capability of the organizations, groups and individuals. Personal Computers (PCs) were introduced in 1970s and were initially thought to be good toys that companies were giving away to managers to play around but, with the advent of technology of building networks of PCs and integrating them with communication technology around mid-1980s, it is changing the way of doing business in the twenty-first century. The vast strides in business electronics has had a profound impact on the way people communicate and send / receive information across companies, countries and continents.
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The advancement in computer-centric technologies has made communication travel faster, safer and almost free from distortions during transmission. Possibilities of misrepresentation are negligible although there are still some unresolved issues of security, hacking etc. Electronic communication has brought in revolutionary changes in written communication. More important tools and techniques of electronic communication that have impacted on written communication,

1. Word Processing
2. Electronic Mail and SMS from Mobile Phones
3. Electronic Meeting System (EMS)
4. Fascimile Transmission or Fax Machines
5. Teletext and Videotext
6. Imaging
7. Optical Scanning
8. Desktop Publishing (DTP)
9. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
10. Blogs

COMPONENTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER

COMPONENTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER

A letter should be a sum of the following parts that make it an effective form of communication:

 Letterhead
 Reference number
 Date
 Special markings
 Inside address
 Attention line
 Salutation
 Subject heading
 Main body
 Complementary close
 Signatory of letter
 Enclosures
 Copies circulated
 Initials markings for identification
 Postscript

These have been described in some details:

(1) Letter head
Since it is the first contact with the recipient, letterhead should make a favourable impression. It is done on printed stationery, usually on a bond paper that has a fine texture. It should not smudge and should withstand piercing and punching for filing work. Modern letter heads occupy about 2” of the top of the page with following information neatly printed / embossed:
 Full name of the firm
 Postal address
 Pin code
 Telephone no(s)
 Fax no(s)
 Email ID etc
In the modern age of Internet, website details are also given. It must contain the registered address of the firm which is often written at the bottom of the first page.

(2) Reference Number of the letter
A reference number is essential for large firms as it facilitates connecting up the next correspondence. Usually, offices have a comprehensive system of filing and associated file nos. The last numerals are unique serial numbers given centrally by the department or even dispatch office. In such cases, it is useful to have a master file containing all the letters issued by a firm or department serially. It can also be organized on a computerized system.

(3) Date of letter
Every letter must have a date of issue that is written in two ways:
 Dd/mm/yyyy or 1 January 2018
 Mm/dd/yyyy or January 1, 2018
The practice followed in the country should be adopted – no other form of writing the date should be used viz., 1st January 2018  or January 1st,2018 . First form of writing date is becoming popular universally.

(4) Special markings
Many letters need to be given special markings:
 Confidential
 Airmail
 Registered post
 Speed post
 Courier etc
These markings carry special meaning and are also put on the envelope.

(5) Inside address
Next, complete name and address of the recipient is written. This should be the same as required to be written on the envelope. These days, comma is not put at the end of each line nor a full stop at the end of the complete address. However, pin code must be written properly and prominently to help postal persons en route.

(6) Attention line
Different types of letters follow different ways:
Official letter : Attention line is formal; usually, designation of the person is used.
DO letter : Mr SHARMA
Form letter : Designation is followed by name in parentheses
e.g., Vice President (Mr Sharma)
Internal letter : Memos use a direct approach viz.
To From

(7) Salutation
It is a formal greeting to the recipient of the letter message. Its choice is directly dependent upon the extent of formality one wishes to observe:
 Official letters : Dear Sir / Madam
 DO Letters : Dear Mr Dhingra / Ms Gautam
Here recipients are not addressed by their first name. Please remember, „Respected Sir‟ is wrong English!

(8) Subject heading
Appropriate heading denoting the subject of the letter being written is usually given e.g., Application for loan, Bill No -------- for ------- dated ------

(9) Main body
Main body comprises of three parts:
(i) First part
It is devoted to a brief introduction and stating the purpose of the letter.
(ii) Second part
It is longer and presents the relevant facts in a logical sequence. It may be extend over several paragraphs. Each paragraph should deal with a separate point and written as clearly as possible.
(iii) Third part
It is related to „conclusion‟ that sums up and rounds up the letter politely, usually soliciting a reply. A few standard forms of concluding phrases are:
 Thanking you
 We thank you in anticipation
 Looking forward to a positive response
 We would be glad to furnish any further information

(10) Complimentary close
It is an important part of the letter and should match the form of salutation used in the beginning of the letter. The usually pairing is as under:
Salutation Complimentary close
(i) Sir Yours truly
(ii) Dear Sir / Madam Yours faithfully
(iii) Dear Mr / Ms Yours sincerely
Please note that memos, being internal communication, have neither the salutation nor the complimentary close.

(11) Signatory of letter
A letter without signatures and signatory is not well received. A recent trend is that computer generated correspondence is being sent without signatures. In coming years when every mail will be sent electronically, it is understandable. However, in these letters, the name and official designation of the sender should be clearly stated. (A number of offices especially from government and public sector undertakings do not seem to follow this practice religiously).

(12) Enclosures
These must be stated clearly after the signature of the sender. Any document sent must be stated clearly for future reference.

(13) Copies distributed
Usually, copies of the letter are sent to persons for the following reasons:
 For information only
 For complementary action(s) as appropriate
Also copies of letters may either contain the enclosures or may be sent without the enclosures. The fact should be clearly stated against each copy distributed.

(14) Markings of initials for quick reference
It is a good practice to put the initials of person who has dictated / directed the letter to be sent under his signature. Also, the initials of the person who has transcribed / word-processed is stated. This is done just below the typed name of the signatory. This can be done in the following ways:
 JNK: ar
 JNK: AR
 JNK/AR
 JNK-AR
Of the above alternatives, first one is preferred.

(15) Post script
People write postscript as a last minute addition to what has been said in the letter. Such addictions must be avoided in commercial correspondence. There is no place for such after-thoughts in the electronic age of word-processing.

STYLE IN WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

STYLE IN WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

There is nothing like the commercial style of English language. Commercial correspondence differs from ordinary correspondence in the nature of content and construction and not in style.

A suitable style reflecting the personality of the writer is always more wholesome and refreshing. It makes a good impression on the customers.
It is not difficult to acquire skills in writing effective business letters provided one has:

 Good knowledge of the language
 Constant habit of reading
 Persistence with writing letters

A business letter is much like a conversation – it is a piece of conversation in writing and delivered by post. Alexander Pope emphasized the point:

„True ease in writing comes from art, not chance,
As those move easiest who have learn‟d to dance.‟

Business letters differ from personal letters in the sense that the goal or purpose is paramount. A few useful tips to serve as a checklist are:

 Will it irritate or annoy?
 Is it a kind of letter everyone would like to receive?
 Will it persuade one to do what is asked?

FUNCTIONS AND OBJECTIVES OF LETTER MESSAGING

FUNCTIONS AND OBJECTIVES OF LETTER MESSAGING

(1) Functions of Letter Messaging

According to a reputed expert, L Gartside, followings are the primary and secondary functions of letter writing:

(i) Primary functions
 Providing a convenient and inexpensive means of communications without personal contact
 Seeking or giving information
 Furnishing evidence of transaction entered in to
 Providing a record for future reference

(ii) Secondary functions
 Creating goodwill for the company
 Making an impression as an efficient and reliable firm

(2) Objectives of Letter Messaging

More important ones are:
 Serves as a record for future use – copies can be sent to functionaries in different locations for future reference
 Leaves a more durable impression on the receiver than an oral message
 Can reach any where in the firms‟ hierarchy and even levels that are difficult to access normally
 Can be sent to different regions, countries and continents where oral or personal contacts are difficult, thus widening firms‟ reach and access
 Forms authoritative, legal document for contracts and collaborations in business
 Is used for building goodwill, image and reputation.

IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS LETTERS

IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS LETTERS

(1) Role of Written Business Letters

Letter messaging is a significant form of business communication. It also constitutes the major component of written communication and forms the backbone of a successful enterprise. A good letter message:

 Can pacify an angry customer (and a bad letter can annoy a customer)
 May sell a new product (or spoil the sale of an established product)
 May collect debt without hurting customers‟ feelings (or lose both money and customer)
 May refuse a request yet win respect
 May grant a request yet incur ill will

(2) Need for Written Business Letters

(i) Every business has to maintain contacts with suppliers, customers / prospects, government agencies, employees, bankers, investors etc. Most often these happen through business letter.

(ii) Companies have to correspond with other enterprises for varied reasons:

 Placing orders for goods & services required from other firms
 Acknowledging and executing orders for other firms
 Granting credits to other parties
 Negotiating credits from other parties
 Securing credit facilities etc from banks
 Sending statement of accounts for debtors
 Receiving statement of accounts from suppliers etc

(iii) Letter messaging may be of less importance for small businesses but it is not dispensable. In fact, a certain amount of letter writing is essential for day to day living in the modern knowledge society.

TYPES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

TYPES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Written communication has a very large variety:

1 Letters
2 Memos
3 Telegrams
4 Tele-printer messages
5 Short reports (Informal)
6 Long reports (Formal)
7 Proposals
8 Company profiles
9 Product profiles
10 Applicant profiles or resume/ writing
11 Abstracts or Summary writing
12 Reviews and Comments
13 Minutes of meetings etc
14 Research papers

Two popular forms – letters and memos are detailed below:

(1) Letters

A letter is a written or printed personal or business message that is usually sent by a mail in an envelope. Many types of letters are in use:
 Personal and non-personal letters
 Direct, indirect and persuasive letters
 Official, demi-official (DO), formal and internal (memo) letters
 Subject letters like enquiries, orders, credit information, collection of debts, complaints, sales promotions, sales circulars, appointment of agencies etc
 Functional letters of correspondence emanate from functional departments like personnel, sales & accounting, purchasing etc

(2) Memos

Memos are intra-organization correspondence written among different departments in the same location or in different locations, factories and offices. Before word processing and other forms of electronic communication became popular, memos carried bulk of the load of written communication within a firm. One of the popular formats was that the initiator of the memo prepared it, with the help of carbon papers, in a set of three copies. The third copy was kept as a record and the set of two copies – first and second, were sent to the person to whom the message was targeted. Only the left half of the memo was written in by the sender. The receiver used the same set of papers and wrote the responses on the right half and sent it back to the initiator.

Essentially both business letters and memos serve the same purpose excepting that memos, being internal communications, were shorn of formal addressing style of business letters that are normally addressed to external customers, prospects, government and other statutory authorities,

EVOLUTION OF IDIOMS, MAXIMS AND PROVERBS

EVOLUTION OF IDIOMS, MAXIMS AND PROVERBS

Following examples are illustrative:

(1) Story of kicking the bucket
One view is the bucket in the story does not refer to a bucket as such but to a wooden frame used in the olden days to hang freshly killed pigs.
Another theory is that the idiom was coined by looking at the way people took their own lives. Such persons kept the bucket upside down to stand on, put the noose hanging from the ceiling around their neck and then kicked the bucket from underneath.

(2) Story of sour grapes
Leila was „head over heel‟ in love with Rahul but he „spurned her overtures‟ and married Pooja. Leila was very much upset but went about pretending that she „knew in her heart of hearts‟ that Rahul was not the sticking type. Someone said it is a clear case of „sour grapes‟ as mentioned in Aesop‟s fable, „The Fox and the Sour Grapes‟.

The core of writing style is writing sentences that create interest, make meanings clear, keeping them short, making every word count and by varying sentence pattern. Use of most suitable idioms, maxims and proverbs can embellish ones‟ writing style as these are the crystalline form of a language and glitter in a sentence like diamonds in a necklace.

A very large variety of idioms, maxims and proverbs is available and students would do well to build up own repertory of these. They act like a pickle in an Indian food – pickle is rarely eaten by itself but when used judiciously with meals, it adds aroma, flavour and taste. They should focus on the evolution of these idioms, maxims and proverbs and become adept at using them skillfully.

WIDE CHOICE OF IDOMS, MAXIMS AND PROVERBS

WIDE CHOICE OF IDOMS, MAXIMS AND PROVERBS

Writers can pick up idioms, maxims and proverbs from a large number available in all languages. They enhance style of writing and are attractive to the receivers of message. There are many such expressions that are vying with one another and wanting, willing and asking to be picked up by the communicators. Thus if senders of message have a better command over the language and vocabulary, they would be more proficient in selecting the right ones.

A few examples are:

(1) The colleague who always speaks to the point can also be described as a person who never „minces his words‟ or he is „cut and dry‟.

(2) Raju, a villager, was always getting drunk and falling in the gutter. He would beat his wife „black and blue‟, snatching her money and „blowing it up on drinks‟. His family was fed up with him. He did not have any friends „worth the name‟. When Raju‟s life came to an end, his family „breathed a sigh of relief‟. One fine morning, he was found dead in a gutter. Someone said that Raju „breathed his last‟ but one could also say that he „kicked the bucket‟.

PICKLE EFFECT OF IDIOMS, MAXIMS AND PROVERBS

PICKLE EFFECT OF IDIOMS, MAXIMS AND PROVERBS

Drawing a parallel from the world of food, it can be said that idioms, maxim and proverbs are like a pickle which is rarely eaten by itself. But when used judiciously with the meals, it adds aroma, flavor and taste to the food.

(1) Idiomatic expressions, maxims and proverbs are not bound by the usual rules of grammar. For example, it may be recalled that, „Many a ship have floundered on these strong seas‟.

(2) When people are hungry and famished, they can just boil some rice and gulp it down. It may kill their hunger but this is not what they usually do. They cook different types of food, add spices / flavourings and then eat them with relish. They not only fill their stomach but also do it royally.
In the same way, while writing or speaking, people do not merely use some words that somehow carry meanings across to readers; they try their best to add beauty and style to the diction to make it attractive so that it has the requisite impact. For example, consider a friend who is always vague in his expressions, rambling and dilly-dallying – he is never able „to come to the point‟. His manner of speaking can be expressed effectively in a few words that he is fond of „beating about the bush‟.
Another colleague is always clear, specific and to the point – „no hemming and hawing‟, no faltering and „no beating about the bush‟. The same could be stated more powerfully that he always „hits the nail on the head‟.

SHARMA`S COMMUNICATION SKILLS

LEARNING WRITING SKILLS -2 

Constructing sentences
Length of the sentence is the most important feature of constructing sentences. In general, sentences should be adapted to readers. Long sentences are hard to read and harder to absorb. Short sentences enhance readability. A sentence should have 16 to 18 words, on the average. Sometimes longer or shorter sentences may be justified. A few good suggestions are:

(i) Limiting content of a sentence
Limiting content of a sentence would reduce its length. However, it should not be overdone. Too many short sentences make the reading choppy!

(ii) Economizing on words
Always look for shorter ways of saying things. A few suggestions are:

(a) Avoiding cluttering phrases
Go in for shorter expressions like:
 „If‟ for „In the event that‟
 „Like‟ for „Along the lines of‟
 „To‟ for „With a view to‟

(b) Eliminating superfluous words
Some words do not add any meaning and a quick scrutiny can go a long way.

(c) Avoiding round about ways of saying things
Round about ways of saying add words and verbosity to the sentences. Being direct makes it simple, short and impressive.

(d) Avoiding repetition of words and phrases
Repeating words and phrases is very boring and should be excluded from ones‟ writing. Only exception is when the writers want to emphasize something.

(iii) Determining emphasis in the construction of sentence
Short sentences emphasize content and long sentences dilute it although determining emphasis in a sentence is largely a matter of judgement.

(iv) Imparting unity to a sentence
All parts of a sentence should relate to one „single thought‟. This unity is often violated in the following three ways:

(a) Including unrelated thoughts
Unrelated thoughts vitiate unity of a sentence and can be taken care of by:
 Using separate sentences for unrelated thought
 Making one thought subordinate to the other
 Adding words to show that the thoughts are related

(b) Giving excessive details
Giving too many details dilutes the unity of a sentence. Avoid details or put them in a separate sentence within parenthesis.

(c) Constructing illogical sentences
Constructing illogical sentences can spoil the unity of a sentence. It results from:
 Mixing active and passive forms of expressions
 Going in for mixed construction of sentences.

(v) Using correct rules of grammar for sentence clarity
Rules of grammar have emerged as a result of some customs but mostly because they help write logically and clearly. Students must know these rules of grammar to acquire effective writing skills.

(vi) Learning power of punctuation
This is a group of distinctive signs that are used in writing and every writer must learn them properly. Some of the uses change like fashion over time and writers must remain updated on them. They add power to ones‟ expressions.

SHARMA`S COMMUNICATION SKILLS

LEARNING WRITING SKILLS

Choosing the right words

A skilled writer should choose words such that the receiver gets the meaning in a precise manner, without different interpretations. Following guidelines are useful:

(i) Searching words that the receiver understands
Adaptation is a process of simplifying; it is not as easy as it sounds because:
 Many individuals write at a more difficult level
 Writers know the subject better than the receiver
Extensive experience supports simplification.

(ii) Using familiar words
Familiar words enhance communication because they are easy to understand and absorb. Human memory favours familiar words as it speeds up filing and storage! For example, use:
 „Show‟ in place of „demonstrate‟
 „Use‟ instead of „utilise‟
 „Try‟ for „endeavour‟

(iii) Choosing short words
Short words communicate better; use:
 „Quit‟ in place of „terminate‟
 „Agreed‟ in lieu of „accorded‟
 „Last year‟ instead of „previous year‟

(iv) Using technical words with caution
Every field of specialization has words that have specific meaning in that field and should be used when communicating with persons from the same area of specialization. They do not communicate well with others and hence should be used with caution, if at all.

(v) Adding vigour to words
Our senses and mind do not respond equally to all words – words with vitality attract better attention. Thus one must add zing to one‟s writings by using strong words. As a rule, a word is strongest when used as a verb, followed by when it is used as a noun. Adjectives and adverbs are comparatively weak and should be used sparingly. A few useful tips are:

(a) Selecting strong and vigorous words
The main purpose of any writing is to attract the attention and time of the reader. We know that strong and vigorous words attract attention from senses and mind. Use:
 „Tycoon‟ in place of „eminently successful businessman‟
 „Boom‟ instead of „period of business prosperity‟

(b) Using concrete words
Using concrete words makes writing more interesting instead of abstract words. Use of specific words adds exactness in ones‟ expressions.

(c) Preferring active to passive verbs
Active form of expression is better than the passive form - it is stronger and shorter. Passive form has a place only when „doer‟ is not important.

(d) Avoiding camouflaged verbs
Do not camouflage verbs in to nouns; they dilute expressions. For example, use:
 Cancel and not cancellation
 Acquire and not acquisition

(vi) Selecting words for precise communication
One should have good command over the vocabulary. It helps in searching for the correct words and phrases that convey precise meanings in a given situation. Writer must try to have a very good collection of idioms, maxims and proverbs. They are very powerful in conveying ones‟ thoughts in a precise manner.

(vii) Avoiding sexist words
These are words that show male dominance e.g., manly figure or manly habits.

(viii) Avoiding pronouns indicating sex
Do not use pronouns like he, she, him or her. This can be done by:
 Making them plural
 Rewording the sentence
 Going in for neutral expression like one, someone etc

(ix) Avoiding words derived from masculine words
Do not use words like manpower, chairman, postman, watchman etc

(x) Avoiding words that are demeaning to women
Words like womanizing, prostituting etc should be left out of writing as they offend some readers.

SHARMA`S COMMUNICATION SKILLS

ROLE OF IDIOMS, MAXIMS AND PROVERBS

Use of idioms, maxims and proverbs helps in embellishing style of communication. However, we have to learn to use them judiciously and with deep understanding;

(1) Idiom
It is an accepted phrase, construction or expression in a language. However, it may be contrary to the usual pattern of a language and has meanings that are different from the literal ones. It can often be a peculiar phraseology, a dialect or a language.

(2) Maxim
It is a concisely expressed principle or rule of conduct and is a statement of general truth or precept.

(3) Proverb
It is a short saying in common use that strikingly expresses a maxim. It is an enigmatical saying in which a profound truth is cloaked or hidden.

Idioms, maxims and proverbs are specimens of language in its crystalline form. These are often compared to the glittering diamonds in a gold necklace.

These are used to express feelings, thoughts and ideas in a succinct, effective and attractive way. Normally a matter that requires several sentences or a whole paragraph may be expressed in 2 or 3 words. The combination of these words has meanings that are far removed from its literal meanings.

For example, when it is said, „In a nutshell‟, it means saying in a few words. When someone feels that the Government machinery moves at „a snail‟s pace‟, he means that there are usual bureaucratic delays that send people „from pillar to post‟. One can „cut the long story short‟ and simply say „red tape‟.

If a person can build up a good repertory of idioms, maxims, proverbs and quotations and then recollect them to suit the occasion, he is already well on his way to becoming a good writer and / or a good speaker.