Persuasion-Defense Tactics

Persuasion-Defense Tactics

Defence/ Resistance Tactics

Resistance to persuasion refers to the processes through which people prevent
persuasive messages from changing their attitudes. They include cognitive,
motivational as well as effective factors. Listed below are some of the defense tactics:

• Deflect - they could divert the issue to a lesser, side issue; or could “pass the
buck” to a lower official who has no real power.

• Delay - your opponent could make you think they are addressing the issue,
when nothing is really being done, for example, forming a “study commission”
that has no real power.

• Deny - your opponent may say your claims and your proposed solutions, or
both, are invalid.

• Discount - your opponent may try to minimize the importance of the problem or
question your legitimacy as an agent of change.

• Deceive - your opponent may deliberately try to make you and your group feel
like, they are taking meaningful action, when they, in fact, have not; they may
never have had any real intention to consider your issues.

• Divide - your opponent may sow the seeds of dissent into your group’s ranks,
and use a “Divide and conquer” strategy.

• Dulcify - your opponent may try to appease or pacify your group through offers
of jobs, services, and other benefits.

• Discredit - your opponent may try to cast doubt on your group’s motives and
methods.

• Destroy - your opponents may try to de-stabilize or eliminate your group through
legal, economic, or scare tactics.

• A deal - your opponent may decide to avoid conflict by offering a deal, working
towards a mutually acceptable solution.

Surrender - the opposition may agree to your demands. If this is the case, you should
remember that the victory is not complete until the opposition follows through with its
promises.

Persuasion-Influencing Tactics

Persuasion-Influencing Tactics

The following is Marwell & Schmitt’s Taxonomy of 16 influence or persuasive tactics
that people employ to change beliefs, attitudes or behaviors of people who they interact
with.

1. Reward
a. I’ll reward you if you do it. “I’ll throw in a pair of speakers if you buy it
today.” “Thanks! I’ll make certain your manager knows how helpful you
were.”

2. Punishment
a. I’ll punish you if you don’t do it. “If you don’t buy it today, I won’t be able to
offer you this special incentive price again.” “If I can’t get it at that price
tomorrow, then I’ll take my business elsewhere.”

3. Positive Expertise
a. Speaking as an authority on the subject, I can tell you that rewards will
occur if you do X, because of the nature of reality. “If you start working out
at our gym regularly, you’ll find that people are more attracted to you
physically.”

4. Negative Expertise
a. Speaking as an authority on the subject, “I can tell you that punishments
will occur if you do Y, because of the nature of reality”. “If you don’t buy it
today, you may never get another chance - our stock is almost sold out.”

5. Liking, Ingratiation
a. To get the prospect into a good frame of mind, ”Gosh you look nice today.
I just love that hat you’re wearing! Should we order dessert before we
look over the contracts?”

6. Gifting, Pre-giving
a. It means giving something as a gift, before requesting compliance.
The idea is that the target will feel the need to reciprocate later. “Here’s
a little something we thought you’d like. Now about those contracts . . .”

7. Debt
a. Recalling past favors like, “After all, I’ve done for you! Come on—this
time it’s me who needs the favor.”

8. Aversive Stimulation
a. Continuous punishment and the cessation of punishment are contingent
on compliance. “I’m going to play my classical music at full volume if you
insist on playing your rock music at full volume. When you turn yours down,
I’ll turn mine down.”

9. Moral Appeal
a. This tactic entails finding common moral ground and then using the moral
commitments of a person to obtain compliance. “You believe that women
should get equal pay for equal work, don’t you? You don’t believe that
men are better than women, do you? Then you ought to sign this petition!
It’s the right thing to do.”
10.Positive Self-feeling
a. You’ll feel better if you X. “If you join our club today, you’ll feel better about
yourself because you’ll know that you’re improving every day.”

11. Negative Self-feeling
a. You’ll feel bad if you Y. “If you don’t return it to him and apologize, you’ll
find it hard to live with yourself.”

12.Positive Altercasting
a. Good people do X. “Smart people tend to sign up for the year in advance because that’s how they can get the best weekly rate.”

13.Negative Altercasting
a. Only a bad person would do Y. “You’re not like those bad sports that whine
and complain when they lose a game.”

14.Altruism
a. Do me a favor or “do-me-a-favor”. “I really need this photocopied right
away, can you help me out?” (An extremely common influence tactic and
is in wide use among friends and acquaintances).

15.Positive Esteem of Others
a. Other people will think more highly of you if you X. “People respect a
man who drives a Mercedes.”

16.Negative Esteem of Others
a. Other people will think worse of you if you Y. “You don’t want people
thinking that you’re a drug-head loser, do you?”

Attitudes change The Good, the Bad and the Ugly Influence

Attitudes change
The Good, the Bad and the Ugly Influence

The outcomes of persuasion could be good, bad or ugly depending on the modes of
tactics and contexts in which they are employed:

• Ugly influencers push and shove others into decisions. They use intimidation:
“My way or no way.” Their style leaves others feeling powerless and resistant to
innovation or change.

• Bad influencers might work hard to achieve legitimate and desirable goals, but
lack the skills to influence effectively. “Do what I say and not what I do.” This
person renders himself unbelievable, provides no model for what should or could
be, and is unable to show others how the change will benefit them. Their style causes
people to feel they are being punished or cutting through red tape, all to please
someone who appears ineffective.

• Good influencers get people to focus on an issue that is clearly and simply
stated, finds out what the emotional value of the issue is to the people involved,
and seeks solutions that satisfy the people who are needed to make the solution
work. Their style is to “walk the talk” because what they say is congruent with
what they do. Good influencers are effective because they create trust, which
enables others to take risks. Their habit of communicating, informing and
including others builds loyalty.

Additional Tools of Problem-Solving

Additional Tools of Problem-Solving

“The Ideal Solution Method”

In this method, the alternatives are listed and then ignored. Instead, an ‘ideal solution’
is fashioned for the situation.
Once that is considered, the list of alternatives can be consulted again to see which
one of them comes nearest to the ‘ideal solution’.
So the alternatives are now considered not on their own individual merit but according
to how close they come to the ‘ideal’.

 The TEC Framework

• T stands for Target
• E stands for Expand and Explore
• C stands for Contract and Conclude
This framework can be put into a time-limited 5-minute problem-solving session.
Spend 1 minute on Target and Task: The target is the precise focus of the thinking and
the task is the thinking task to be performed.
Spend 2 minutes on Expand and Explore: Open up the phrase, explore the territory,
pull in information and concepts.
Spend 2 minutes on Contract and Conclude: Try to make sense of when you have
come to a definite conclusion or solution.
By strictly timing ourselves according to this framework the mind really focuses and
produces results!

Understanding Persuasion

Understanding Persuasion

Persuasion and Attitude Change

Formation and change of attitude are not two separate things - they are interwoven.
People are always adopting, modifying or relinquishing attitudes to fit their everchanging
needs and interests. Acceptance of new attitudes depends on who is the
communicator, how the communication is presented, how the communication is
perceived by the message receiver, the credibility of the communicator, and the
conditions under which the knowledge was received.
Attitudes change when:

1. A person receives new information from others or media - Cognitive change
2. Through direct experience with the attitude object - Affective change

Force a person to behave in a way different than normal - Behavioral change
Attitudes change, based on how a person perceives the communication and the
communicator. Less committed people will change ideas more frequently. Attitude
change also has to do with other personality characteristics such as susceptibility to
persuasion, intelligence, readiness to accept change, etc. People are more likely to
accept information if they feel the communicator has no intent to change our attitudes
and opinions.

Understanding Persuasion

 Understanding Persuasion

“Few are open to conviction, but the majority of men are open to persuasion”
- Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Smart people know that managing by decree does not work with baby boomers
and Gen-Xers, who will not tolerate the unquestioned authority of the old commanding-
control environment. Work gets done by people who do not just ask: “What should
I do?”, but who ask: “Why should I do it?” Answering these ‘why’ questions requires
persuasion—a conversational art worth developing.

Effective persuasion is a process which involves negotiating and learning through
which a persuader leads colleagues to a problem’s shared solution. It incorporates
discovery, preparation, and dialogue. It is about testing and revising ideas in concert
with one’s colleagues’ concerns and needs.

The principal purpose of persuasion can be defined as being able to influence or
change one’s attitudes, beliefs or values towards a particular subject/object, so that
these will merge and finally equal the persuader’s thoughts and feelings.

• Attitude = A predisposition to respond to people, ideas, objects, or events in
evaluative ways

Beliefs = The ways people perceive reality to be; our conceptions about what is true
and what is false

Values = People’s most enduring judgments about what’s good and bad in life
The objective of persuasion may range from slight shifts in opinion to complete change
in behavior. But, how does one determine whether one’s goals are persuasive?

Additional Tools of Problem-Solving

Additional Tools of Problem-Solving

1. The APC tool For Problem-Solving

APC stands for:
• Alternatives
• Possibilities
• Choices

The three words are close in meaning, although one or more may be more appropriate
in a given situation.
Doing an APC means thinking of alternatives, or different approaches then, with these
multiple choices before us, we can select what seems to be the best solution.
Generating alternatives opens up possibilities. It requires special mental effort as the
human brain naturally looks for patterns and certainty rather than alternatives.
That is why a thinking tool such as APC forces the mind into new directions, into actually
focusing, concentrating on alternatives.

2. “The Ideal Solution Method”
In this method the alternatives are listed and then ignored. Instead, an ‘ideal solution’
is fashioned for the situation.
Once that is considered, the list of alternatives can be consulted again to see which
one of them comes nearest to the ‘ideal solution’.
So the alternatives are now considered not on their own individual merit but according
to how close they come to the ‘ideal’.

3. The TEC Framework

• T stands for Target
• E stands for Expand and Explore
• C stands for Contract and Conclude

This framework can be put into a time-limited 5-minute problem-solving session.
Spend 1 minute on Target and Task: The target is the precise focus of the thinking and
the task is the thinking task to be performed.
Spend 2 minutes on Expand and Explore: Open up the phrase, explore the territory,
pull in information and concepts.
Spend 2 minutes on Contract and Conclude: Try to make sense of when you have
come to a definite conclusion or solution.
By strictly timing ourselves according to this framework the mind really focuses and
produces results!

10 Steps for Boosting Creativity

                    10 Steps for Boosting Creativity

                           (Jeffrey Baumgartner)

1. Listen to music by Johann Sebastian Bach. If Bach doesn’t make you more creative,
you should probably see your doctor - or your brain surgeon if you are also troubled by
headaches, hallucinations or strange urges in the middle of the night.

2. Brainstorm. If properly carried out, brainstorming can help you not only come up with
sacks full of new ideas, but can help you decide which is best.

3. Always carry a small notebook and a pen or pencil around with you. That way, if you are
struck by an idea, you can quickly note it down. Upon rereading your notes, you may
discover about 90% of your ideas are daft. Don’t worry, that’s normal. What’s important
are the 10% that are brilliant.

4. If you’re stuck for an idea, open a dictionary, randomly select a word and then try to
formulate ideas incorporating this word. You’d be surprised how well this works. The
concept is based on a simple but little known truth: freedom inhibits creativity. There
are nothing like restrictions to get you thinking.

5. Define your problem. Grab a sheet of paper, electronic notebook, computer or whatever
you use to make notes, and define your problem in detail. You’ll probably find ideas
positively spewing out once you’ve done this.

6. If you can’t think, go for a walk. A change of atmosphere is good for you and gentle
exercise helps shake up the brain cells.

7. Don’t watch TV. Experiments performed by the JPB Creative Laboratory show that
watching TV causes your brain to slowly trickle out your ears and/or nose. It’s not pretty,
but it happens.

8. Don’t do drugs. People on drugs think they are creative. To everyone else, they seem
like people on drugs.

9. Read as much as you can about everything possible. Books exercise your brain, provide
inspiration and fill you with information that allows you to make creative connections
easily.

10. Exercise your brain. Brains, like bodies, need exercise to keep fit. If you don’t exercise
your brain, it will get flabby and useless. Exercise your brain by reading a lot, talking to
clever people and disagreeing with people - arguing can be a terrific way to give your
brain cells a workout. But note, arguing about politics or film directors is good for you;
bickering over who should clean the dishes is not.

De Bono’s ‘Six Thinking Hats’ to improve your thinking skills

 De Bono’s ‘Six Thinking Hats’ to improve your thinking skills

The ‘Six Thinking Hats’ is a quick, simple and powerful technique to improve your thinking.
It does this by encouraging you to recognize what type of thinking you are using, and to
apply different types of thinking to the subject.
Sounds strange? Take two minutes to expand your thinking skills…We all use different
types of thinking, usually without realizing it. For example, if we are feeling pessimistic
about the situation, that is the only type of thinking we apply! This limits our ability to see all
the issues.

• The White Hat is cold, neutral, and objective. Take time to look at the facts and
figures.
• The Red Hat represents anger (seeing red). Take time to listen to your emotions,
your intuition.
• The Black Hat is gloomy and negative. Take time to look at why this will fail.
• The Yellow Hat is sunny and positive. Take time to be hopeful and optimistic.
• The Green Hat is grass, fertile and growing. Take time to be creative and cultivate
new ideas.
• The Blue Hat is the color of the sky, high above us all. Take time to look from a
higher and wider perspective to see whether you are addressing the right issue.

You can also think of the hats as pairs: White and Red, Black and Yellow and Green
and Blue

Next time you are thinking through an issue, try on de Bono’s thinking hats. You’ll soon find
that they give you a quick, simple, and powerful technique to improve your thinking.

Huitt’s list of problem-solving techniques

Huitt’s list of problem-solving techniques

a) Brainstorming: It is attempting to spontaneously generate as many ideas on a
subject as possible; ideas are not critiqued during the brainstorming process;
participants are encouraged to form new ideas from ideas already stated.

b). Imaging/Visualization: It is producing mental pictures of the total problem or
specific parts of the problem.

c). Incubation: It is putting aside the problem and doing something else to allow the
mind to unconsciously consider the problem

d). Outcome Psychodrama: It is enacting a scenario of alternatives or solutions
through role playing.

e). Outrageous Provocation: It is making a statement that is known to be incorrect
(e.g., the brain is made of charcoal) and then considering it; used as a bridge to a new
idea.rload: It is considering a large number of facts and details until the logic part of
the brain becomes overwhelmed and begins looking for patterns. It can also be
generated by immersion in aesthetic experiences, sensitivity training or similar
experiences.

g). Random Word Technique: It is selecting a word randomly from the dictionary
and juxtaposing it with problem statement, then brainstorming about possible
relationships.

h). Relaxation: It is systematically relaxing all muscles while repeating a personally
meaningful focus word or phrase.

i). Synthesizing: It is combining parts or elements into a new and original pattern.

j). Taking Another’s Perspective: It is deliberately taking another person’s point of view.

k). Value Clarification: It is using techniques such as role playing, simulations, selfanalysis
exercises, and structured controversy to gain a greater understanding of attitudes and beliefs that individuals hold important. The value clarification can provide a greater goal clarity and motivation and increase an internal locus of control for managers.

Personality Types & Problem-Solving Techniques

Personality Types & Problem-Solving Techniques

It is not enough to describe a problem-solving process and to describe how individuals
differ in their approach to or use of it. It is also necessary to identify specific techniques
of attending to individual differences. Fortunately, a variety of problem-solving
techniques has been identified to accommodate individual preferences. Some of these
techniques are oriented more to individuals who are more structured, more rational
and analytical, and more goal-oriented in their approach to problem-solving.

Other techniques are more suited to individuals who demonstrate a preference for an
approach that is more holistic and parallel, more emotional and intuitive, more creative,
more visual, and more tactual/kinesthetic. It is important that techniques from both
categories be selected and used in the problem-solving process. “

William G. Huitt (“Problem Solving and Decision Making: Consideration of Individual
differences - Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator”) lists out the following sixteen
problem-solving techniques, which focus more on logic and critical thinking,
especially within the context of applying the scientific approach:

a). Means-End Analysis: In means-ends analysis, the problem solver compares the
present situation with the goal, detects a difference between them, and then searches
memory for actions that are likely to reduce the difference.

b). Backwards Planning: The strategy of working backwards entails starting with
the end results and reversing the steps you need to get those results, in order to figure
out the answer to the problem.

c). Categorizing/Classifying: It is the process of grouping objects or events together
on the basis of a logical rationale. There are two kinds of categorizing, grouping and
classifying. Grouping is putting together objects on the basis of a single property. Files
might be grouped on the basis of “urgent” and “not-urgent”. Grouping is useful in
revealing similarities and differences that otherwise might go unnoticed. Classifying
involves putting items together on the basis of more than a single property at a time.

d). Challenging Assumptions: It involves the direct confrontation of ideas, opinions,
or attitudes that have previously been taken for granted. The purpose is to identify the
fallacies, consistencies and inconsistencies in the problem-solving process.

e). Evaluating/Judging: It involves the comparison with a standard and making a
qualitative or quantitative judgment of value or worth. Good evaluations of problem
solving are generally based on multiple sources of assessment information.

f). Inductive/Deductive Reasoning: Reasoning is the systematic and logical
development of rules or concepts from specific instances or the identification of cases
based on a general principle or proposition using generalization and inference.

g). Thinking Aloud: It is the process of verbalizing about a problem and its solution
while a partner listens in detail for errors in thinking or understanding.

h). Network Analysis: It is a systems approach to project planning and management
where relationships among activities, events, resources, and timelines are developed
and charted. Specific examples include Program Evaluation and Review Technique
and Critical Path Method.

i). Plus-Minus-Interesting (PMI): It involves considering the positive, negative, and
interesting or thought-provoking aspects of an idea or alternative using a balance sheet
grid where plus and minus refer to criteria identified in the second step of the problemsolving
process.

j) Task analysis: It is the consideration of skills and knowledge required to learn or
perform a specific task.

Personality Types & Problem-Solving Orientations

Personality Types & Problem-Solving Orientations

People are all different in fundamental ways. Their aptitude and competence to process different information is limited by their personality type. These types are eight in number, such as:

• People can be either Extroverts or Introverts, depending on the direction of their
activity;
• Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, Intuitive, according to their own information pathways;
and
• Judging or Perceiving, depending on the method in which they process received
information.

Researchers like Lawrence, McCaulley and Myers have investigated the relationship
of Karl Jung’s theory of individuals’ preferences and their approach to problem solving
and decision-making. Their findings are summarized below (William G. Huitt – “Problem
solving and Decision Making: Consideration of Individual Differences Using the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator”):

1. When solving problems, individuals who are introverts will want to take time to
think and clarify their ideas before they begin talking. They will more likely be
concerned with their own understanding of important concepts and ideas.

2. Individuals who are extroverts will want to talk through their ideas in order to clarify
them. They will continually seek feedback from the environment about the viability
of their ideas.

3. Sensing individuals will be more likely to pay attention to facts, details, and reality.
They will also tend to select standard solutions that have worked in the past.

4. Persons with intuition preferences will more likely attend to the meaningfulness of
the facts, the relationships among the facts, and the possibilities of future events
that can be imagined from these facts. They will exhibit a tendency to develop new,
original solutions rather than to use what has worked previously.
5. Individuals with a thinking preference will tend to use logic and analysis during
problem-solving. They are also likely to value objectivity and be impersonal in
drawing conclusions. They want solutions to make sense in terms of the facts,
models, and/or principles under consideration.
6. Individuals with a feeling preference are more likely to consider values and feelings
in the problem-solving process. They will tend to be subjective in their decisionmaking
and to consider how their decisions could affect other people.
7. People, particularly, the ‘judging’ types, are more likely to prefer structure and
organization to the problems itself and will want the problem-solving process to
demonstrate closure.
8. People with a perceiving preference are more likely to prefer flexibility and
adaptability. They will be more concerned that the problem solving process considers
a variety of techniques and provides for unforeseen changes.

Essentials of Effective Problem Solving

Essentials of Effective Problem Solving

• A clear description of the problem
• A description of the limiting (or negative) factors involved in the
problem
• A description of the constructive (or positive) factors involved in the
problem
• A clear delineation of the “ownership” of the problem - Whose problem
is it: mine, yours, the other guy’s, my boss’, my spouse’s, my child’s, my
parents’, my teacher’s?
• A clear description of the scope of the problem: How extensive a problem
is it? How long has this problem existed? How many people are affected?
What else is affected by this problem?
• A clear description of the consequences if the problem were not solved
- What is the possible impact on my family, job, life in this community, etc., if
this problem isn’t solved? What is the worst possible thing that could happen
if this problem isn’t solved?
• A list of brainstormed solutions to the problem, with each alternative
analyzed as to its reality, its benefits, and the consequences for following
each one.
• A system of ranking each solution to finalize the decision-making
process - A rating system for analyzing each solution is developed, e.g., 100%
chance of success, 75% chance of success, 50% chance of success.
• A clear description of myself as a problem-solver - When it comes to this
problem, am I procrastinating? Am I avoiding the problem? Am I denying the
problem? Am I shutting down or blocking my creativity on this problem? Am I
ignoring it, hoping it will go away? Am I using magical and/or fantasy thinking
in addressing the problem?
• Determination to follow through on the solution decided upon jointly.
This involves full motivation to “take the risk” and pursue the solution to its
fullest

PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS...Contd.,

PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS...Contd.,

Select the best solution:

 Now that there are a wide variety of possible solutions,

it is time to select the best solution to fix the problem, given the circumstances, resources

and other considerations. Here the managers are trying to figure out exactly what would

work best given the nature of the problem. There are always a number of things that

can affect a solution, for instance, money, time, people, procedures, policies, rules,

and so on. All of these factors must be thought about. Managers should prioritise the

solutions by their effectiveness. This is a slow process of elimination. There may be

some possible suggestions that are immediately eliminated. Eventually, managers

should narrow down the choices to one best possible solution which will promise the

best or optimal outcomes.

 Implementation: 

Implementation is a crucial part of problem-solving process. In

order to implement the solution chosen, managers must have an action plan and

communicate it to those directly and indirectly affected. Gemmy Allen (“Problem-Solving

& Decision-Making”) says that communication is most effective when it precedes action

and events. In this way, events conform to plans and events happen when, and in the

way, they should happen. Managers should answer the vital questions before they are

asked, like –

• What should be communicated?

• What is the reason for the decision?

• Whom will it affect and how?

• What are the benefits expected for the individual, the department, and the

organization?

• What adjustments will be required in terms of how work will be done?

• What, specifically, is each individual’s role in implementing the decision?

• What results are expected from each individual?

• When does the action called for by the decision go into effect?

Communicating answers to these questions can overcome any resistance that otherwise

might be encountered.

PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS...Contd.,

PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS...Contd.,

Set Goals

Having explored and analyzed the problem, managers should be able
to write a goal statement that focuses on what is the successful end of the process.
Making and writing down a goal statement:
• helps them to clarify the direction to take in solving the problem; and
• gives them something definite to focus on
That is, what will occur as a result of the solution? This whole process is about closing
or fixing the gap between the problem and the goal. Writing down the problem ensures
that they are not side-tracking from, but addressing the problem.

Look at alternatives

Now that the problem has been analyzed, the managers can
begin to develop possible solutions. This is a creative as well as practical step where
every possible solution is identified. They should identify the various alternative solutions
available to them through such techniques as –

• Analysis of past solutions
• Reading
• Researching
• Thinking
• Asking Questions
• Discussing
• Viewing the problem with fresh eyes
• Brainstorming
• Sleeping on it
The idea is to collect as many alternative solutions as possible.

Mind mapping

Mind mapping is another technique that can be used for identifying alternative
solutions. Developed by Tony Buzan in the 1970’s, mind mapping uses pictures and/
or word phrases to organize and develop thoughts in a non-linear fashion. It helps
people “see” a problem and its solution. Here’s how to do mind mapping:
• Take a sheet of plain paper and turn it sideways (if using flipchart paper you
don’t need to turn it sideways - it is large enough); Using colored felt pens, draw
a small picture (or write a phrase) in the centre of the paper representing the
issue you want to solve; Draw lines out from the main problem (it helps to use
different colors for each line).
• Each line should represent a different aspect of your problem or issue;
• Write down what each line represents either on top of or on the line;
• Add other lines flowing off these main lines;
• Write a word or short phrase on the smaller lines indicating what each new line
represents (you may find that mind mapping works best for you if you write down
the phrases or draw the images first and then connect them with the lines); and
• If you want, add images next to your main line that illustrate what each line means
to you (some people think better with pictures, others with words)....to be contd