HEARING, LISTENING, AND UNDERSTANDING

HEARING, LISTENING, AND UNDERSTANDING

A hearing is becoming aware of sounds especially through stimulation of auditory nerves in the ear by the sound waves. It is a sense by which sounds are perceived.

Listening is much more – it is making conscious efforts to hear the speaker. It is matching of the mental faculties of the sender and the receiver. It is the understanding of the intent of total message as sent by the sender. When the speaker asks if the audience understood the message, listeners‟ nod is for the complete message including unspoken words, gestures, and expressions of the speaker.

Listening is an accurate perception of all that is being presented. Listening is a vital part of the entire process of communication. The effectiveness of communication is, in fact, determined by the extent to which listening and understanding take place after an interaction. It consists of two stages:

 Encoding and transmission of the message by the sender
 Decoding and providing the required feedback by the receiver

Listening is said to have taken place if there is satisfactory execution of both the stages. If the message has been understood in exactly the same way as was intended by the sender, it can be said that listening has taken place accurately. However, if there are discrepancies between the intent of message sent and the way it has been perceived, listening is deficient and the communication has not been effective.

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION SKILLS

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION SKILLS

„Power-point‟ software, created by Microsoft, is a very useful tool and is being used extensively as an essential aid to oral presentation. „Power-point‟ can be used in conjunction with Over Head Projector (OHP) or Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) or as a vehicle for a multi-media presentation.
Multi-media presentation is becoming popular very fast. It uses a compact disc that contains the entire subject in suitably prepared MS „Power-point‟ slides.

A few important guiding principles are:

(1) Know the subject material
Speakers must have authentic material on the subject of their presentation. Ideally, it should be audience-tested and modified taking in to account the feedback. To the audience, they are the experts.

(2) Know the audience
To customize the presentation for the audience, speakers must know them and their learning objectives. Speakers need to check out if the material available is adequate for meeting the learning objectives.

(3) Understand time constraints of the presentation
Presentations are made in the limited time frame available. The challenge before the speakers is to complete the presentation within the time slot available and still make it very effective.

(4) Keep presentation simple

Three important rules are:
 Use as few words as possible
 Assume your audience can read
 Don‟t let words run-off the page

Many times, speakers read all the words and lines in the presentation – it is almost „insulting‟ to the audience! This can be achieved better when speakers use „speaker notes‟ the audience does not have to go through the entire matter on the screen.

(5) Use speaker notes
For each power-point slide, speakers must create own dialogue. It is a detailed script of what they are going to say when the slide is projected on the screen. The entire presentation is prepared and printed before making the presentation. Once it is ready, it becomes easier for the speakers as they can make the presentation by working from the speaker notes.

Aggressive communication style

Aggressive communication style

This style or behavior happens when persons:

 Stand up for their rights in a way that violates the right of others to have their say
 Express own thoughts, feelings etc in an inappropriate way even when they believe that their views are incorrect

The aggressive style of communication enhances speakers at the cost of others. It puts the other person down and is based on the opinion that their opinions are more important than others. It is characterized by:

 Blaming others or factors external and outside own control
 Showing contempt for others
 Being hostile to others
 Attacking others orally
 Patronizing others

Aggressive behavior usually succeeds in getting what he wants; it also conveys a sense of power over others. It helps the communicator to release his steam and provides an outlet for his anger and bad feelings.

Non-assertive (Submissive) communication style

Non-assertive (Submissive) communication style

This style or behavior happens when persons:

 Fail to stand up for their rights
 Do things in a manner that others can easily disregard
 Express opinions, feelings etc in an apologetic and cautious manner
 Fail to express own opinions, feelings etc altogether

A person becomes submissive when he sees that his own needs and wants are less important than others. The person tends to justify or explain while accommodating others‟ viewpoint.
In the event of a conflict, a person with submissive communication style can easily defuse the situation by avoiding taking a strong stand. It helps people to escape anxiety or confrontation. He avoids feeling guilty about letting someone down etc. Usually work suffers because aggressive viewpoint, not necessarily the best option, prevails.

TRAITS OF A GOOD SPEAKER

TRAITS OF A GOOD SPEAKER

Speakers have also to learn and acquire skills in speaking. These skills can vary widely from being effective in conversation among a few colleagues, a medium-sized group or a large audience verging upon a public speech. A few salient traits of a good speaker are:

(1) Be earnest
An earnest person speaks not to show of nor talks about irrelevant topics. He remains conscious of the purpose of his speech.

(2) Have a sense of responsibility towards audience
He is conscious that time is precious and tries to make the best use of the time he gets with his audience.

(3) Has a sense of commitment to his subject / duty
He thinks and plans ahead what he has to say and does not take on more than what can be accomplished.

(4) Has a sense of responsibility towards other speakers
He does not try to monopolize the occasion and restricts to the time allotted to him.

(5) Keeps his cool
He is not carried away by excitement and enthusiasm. Over-confidence is as bad as under-confidence.

(6) Has a good sense of leadership
He speaks with eye contacts with the audience in full measure; talks with confidence, authority, and responsibility.
(7) Is balanced in approach
The speaker should remain balanced in spite of provocation if any and exhibit sanity to the audience.

(8) Has a sense of humour
An anecdote that is humorous is welcome as it adds a flavour to the message being delivered.

(9) Is focused and interested
The speaker must convey that he is very interested in the subject as it is interesting and will be of interest to his audience too. His focus on the subject should become evident by the time he finishes speaking.

(10) Is enthusiastic and spirited
The speaker must be full of spirits and assume lively audience who need to be enthused about the benefits of the message that he has the privilege of knowing and delivering.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SPEECH

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SPEECH

Listening to a good speech is a very interesting experience. Everyone should put in the hard work necessary to acquire skills in speaking as it imparts a considerable competitive advantage to the person. Some important aspects are:

(1) Clarity
The voice of the speaker should be clear, the tone should vary and pitch should be pleasant. The ideas, emotions, and arguments should come straight from the heart so that audience can grasp it easily. It should register with the listeners and vibrate with their feelings and thoughts.

(2) Informal, personal and conversational
A good speech should be like a conversation between two good friends – personal, informal and sincere. There should be a rapport between the speaker and the audience.

(3) Concrete, vivid and imagery
A speech should help build a picture that is easy to visualize and easier to comprehend. It should be furbished by concrete examples that grasp the imagination of the listeners.

(4) Brevity
It is very difficult to hold the attention of the listeners for more than 15 to 20 minutes. A good speaker should be able to convey his complete message in that period. He should come straight to the point and say what he wants by bringing three or four points to their attention.

(5) Interesting, jovial and humorous
A speaker wins or loses the battle in the first two or three minutes. If the speaker has impressed the audience with his opening remarks, he is well on your way to winning a space in their heart. And that is the target. It has to be a heart to heart dialogue. Lace it with short humorous anecdotes – laughter lubricates learning!

Anecdotes should be short, appropriate and in good taste. Quotations, proverbs and idioms should be like arrows piercing directly in to the heart of the audience. Experienced speakers learn to master the art of reciting these statements, giving a long pause after it has been stated to let it sink in with the audience.

(6) Listener-oriented
Audience is your customer. It is your business to know their needs and wants, their desires and their expectations. Speaker has to be very sensitive to the body language of their audience and modify the speech to fine tune with them. If the message has to gel well with the audience, speakers‟ antenna should pick up the cues from the body language of the listeners.

POWER OF SPEECH

POWER OF SPEECH

Spoken words form a powerful medium for influencing people to accomplish tasks. Salespersons make a sort of speech to persuade their customers to buy products they are selling. Traveling salespersons visit dealers and retailers and influence them to place an order for the product offerings of the company. Insurance agents persuade their clients to buy life / general insurance of their firm for protection against various kinds of losses to life or possessions like household, car, health etc.
Similarly, business managers, industrialists, and leaders have to deliver speeches at events relating to product launches, sales conferences, and training programmes. Besides, they speak to inaugural events, seminars, meetings of trade associations etc. An organization is an association of people who often organize social, sports and cultural gatherings where managers/leaders are expected to deliver speeches suited to the occasion.
Outside the organization, community and political leaders are called upon to speak on several occasions/functions. Master speakers and orators have been sought to speak on diverse subjects. Powerful speeches can:
 Inspire listeners or make them dispirited
 Build tension on issues or relax tension among the audience
 Incite people to quarrel/fight or induce them to be friendly
 Turn hostile audience into a supportive one and vice versa
 Stir people to rebel/revolt or become docile
 Make people undertake a long march or stay at home
It is difficult to visualize what Alexander the Great must have told his soldiers when he stirred them to undertake a long journey from Greece to India in olden days, conquering countries after countries and marching into India when there were hardly any worthwhile means of transportation and transshipment.
In modern India, people recall nostalgically Jawaharlal Nehru‟s speech at the midnight of 15th August 1947 of „tryst with destiny‟ or later on the death of Mahatma Gandhi, „the light has gone out‟.
Speeches of Late Dr. S Radhakrishnan who became the second President of India had a certain magic about them. It was difficult to improve upon the impromptu speeches of Late Swami Ranganathananda of Ramakrishna Mission.

BASICS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

BASICS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

Oral communication connotes words uttered through the mouth i.e., spoken words. It is any utterance of, at or near the mouth, involving resonance of the mouth. It must be distinguished from the nasal resonance – resonance through the nose. Oral communication always conveys an idea or a feeling.
There are two forms of oral communication:
 Speaking
 Listening

Oral communication covers both the forms. Remember the famous saying, „It takes two to tango‟. Like the famous chicken and egg story, it is difficult to decide which one came first. At any rate, it is pointless talking unless someone is listening. One cannot be listening unless someone is speaking or talking. It is said that „the art of conversation is the art of hearing as well as of being heard‟.

(1) Speaking
An average manager speaks for about 30 % of his time. The proportion goes up as one goes up the hierarchical levels. Speaking implies:
 Talking
 Conversing
 Chatting
 Addressing
 Discoursing

(2) Listening
A close synonym of listening is hearing; hearing is any sound that goes through the auditory nerves or sound waves as they enter the ears. An average manager spends about 45 % of the time listening. It should advisably go up as one goes upwards in the hierarchy. Listening is a very powerful trait of leaders.

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Future managers and leaders must strive to become powerful communicators by acquiring a good perception of their target audience and being precise in their expressions. They should have good command over the process of reshaping opinion of their audience and remain both friendly and congenial in their disposition.

Crafting effective message is like a painting – the creator of the message is like the artist who must first think of the purpose and the audience. He should tell in advance what he is going to tell, follow it by telling it in a concrete and specific language, sticking to the point and connecting new information to the existing ideas concisely and finally, wind up by summarizing what he has told. This has a telling impact on the audience. Quality of messaging can be further improved by minimizing noise, distraction, and disruption during delivery and facilitating feedback that enables the communicator to monitor and modify the message as appropriate.

In modern business environments, messaging covering both communication and flow of information, has assumed strategic importance as it enhances communicators‟ persona to „impress‟, paves way for their „success‟ and prevents „failure‟. Business communications play a crucial role in setting corporate objectives, formulating strategies and facilitating management through well-orchestrated planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. The entire process of management is mediated through conversation, correspondence and intelligent use of body language at an individual, group and organizational levels for facilitating a free flow of information/ communication that support decision-making and action-taking. These are then controlled through monitoring, measuring and communicating different aspects of administration relating to price (P), quality (Q), reliability (R), service (S) and time (T) – the five pillars that are „sine qua non‟ of management..

Human civilization has progressed faster because they have learned to communicate and cooperate better. As society progresses further, human beings are on way to evolving the foundational rights of behavior that should apply to every individual.

COMMUNICATION AND SOCIETY

COMMUNICATION AND SOCIETY

Human civilization has progressed reasonably well so far largely because human beings, as a species of the animal kingdom, have learned to communicate and cooperate among themselves. There is a consensus that progress would have been faster if cooperation was always willing and with negligible confrontation and more co-existence with divergent views. Wars – hot or cold, always impede progress. Even so, humans have moved towards a greater degree of individual freedom in addition to freedom from hunger, want and illiteracy. Because of a reasonably good level of communication achieved among communities, countries, and continents, society is already talking about the universal rights of everyone on planet earth. These are stated below:

1 The right to be treated with respect
2 The right to have and express own feelings
3 The right to be listened to and taken seriously
4 The right to set own priorities
5 The right to say „no‟ without feeling guilty
6 The right to ask for what one wants
7 The right to get what one pays for
8 The right to get information from professionals
9 The right to make mistakes
10 The right to choose not to „assert‟ oneself

A careful examination of the above bills of rights would confirm beyond doubt the strategic importance of communication in the well being of our modern society. Communications form the edifice of an evolution of entire human civilization. Human beings as a species have progressed better than other animal species largely because they have learned to communicate among themselves better. Human beings have undertaken many projects jointly because they were able to influence other persons to a common viewpoint through better communication skills.

Targets of communication

Targets of communication

At the organization level

The decisions taken at organizational level need to be communicated to all personnel so that everyone is aware of the corporate objectives and devises suitable strategies for long-term, medium-term and short-term action plans for accomplishing the required tasks. At the organizational level, the focus is more on communication to external stakeholders – shareholders, investors, financiers, suppliers, customers, competitors and internal stakeholders like employees, managers, and directors who are not employees of the firm.
Consequently, public relations and corporate communication play a major role in communication at this level. There are a number of issues that warrant communication to both internal and external agencies. Environmental issues are of interest to the community and society at large and need is to keep them informed of the measures being undertaken by the firm, on a proactive basis, to combat pollution and go in for cleaner technologies as a voluntary option rather a compulsion under the laws.

Decision-making and action-taking

Management process cascades into taking a series of decisions followed by actions at all levels of the organization in fulfillment of their tasks which together combine into bigger targets or departmental objectives and finally the corporate goals.

Business communications provide the bridge between decision-making and action-taking and emerge as the critical process in the linkage between „planning your work‟ and „working your plan‟.

Price, Quality, Reliability, Service and Time parameters

If a job cannot be measured, it cannot be managed. In all jobs, we can organize a detailed system of measurement for at least five of its critical success factors viz., price (P), quality (Q), reliability (R), service (S) and time (T). These five variables account for the most foundational aspects that need to be continually measured and monitored to ensure that the execution is happening as originally planned.
Thus, communication about these five constituents of management (P, Q, R, S & T) at all levels of the organization would form the bread and butter of the management of information flow, highlighting its critical importance in the very functioning of the enterprise. Conversely, if communication is absent among different functionaries of an enterprise, they can neither fix the targets nor measure the actual performance nor even the variance between the target and actual. Such organizations will become babes in the wilderness!

Target of communication

Target of communication

(i) At the individual levels
This is one to one communication that is mostly carried out orally. In small firms, such oral communications may take place face-to-face but in large corporations, a bulk of this communication is oral but not face-to-face. It may be through the use of telephones, mobile or Internet telephony etc
It can also be through written reports – information flows through the organization to the remotest corners in the form of hourly, shift or daily reports. These reports are further summarized into weekly, monthly and quarterly reports for dissemination at the appropriate levels of the enterprise. Messaging through electronic mail is changing the scenario rapidly.

(ii) At the group level
Contemporarily, this has emerged as the most common form of communication as enterprises move from individual way of job design to a more socially accepted form of team working. Every job that is being done is communicated to the team members, located in different departments, different cities, and different countries. Experience has confirmed that teamwork ensures better and faster completion of jobs at most levels of working.
Both oral and written types of communication are used extensively. Much of the oral communications take place in meetings, seminars, and conferences done by inviting them to a room or through computer-based video conferencing.
Similarly written reports are either circulated physically or, as is becoming more common, soft copies are emailed to everyone. As a rule, no hard copies are made. Anyone wanting hard copies and authorized to have them can request the same from the nearest server station of the computer network. This has been the corporate policy followed by Microsoft for almost a decade now. We are still quite far away from the utopian situation of having „paper-less, people-less‟ offices but there is no doubt that the sizes of the establishments are becoming leaner through downsizing and de-layering of organization structures.

Process of management

Process of management

Once the corporate objectives have been quantitatively and otherwise specified, the normal process of management takes over. Every step of the process is carried through the free flow of communication as described below:

(i) Planning
Planning is based on assumptions about working etc, predictions and forecasts that overarch time horizon designated for planning. For strategic planning, time horizon may extend from 3 to 5 years; for tactical planning, the time horizon is around one year and for operational planning, it may be three months or even less.

It has been said that managing the future really involves management of information about the future. This flow of communication about the achievements in the past, trend analyses and their projection into the future form the grist of planning work. Central to any planning is the strategic intent
of the company. Therefore, along with the detailed planning, communication must include the underlying assumptions and strategy underpinning it.

(ii) Organizing
Once the overall strategic planning is frozen, a design of organization structure must be examined – what changes need be made in the existing design so that it is in tune with the changed requirements of the new strategy.
Every stakeholder of the firm must be communicated properly about the new organization structure, changes brought about and how those changes will take shape. An open, transparent and participative approach in management will go a long way in allaying any fears. Timely and comprehensive communication ensures against gaps, the breeding ground of gossips and rumors.

(iii) Staffing
Staffing involves filling up of the positions as per the requirements of the new organization structure. A proper procedure must be followed for recruitment, without ignoring the rightful claim of internal claimants.
A transparent system for filling up any vacancy must be designed and implemented so that internal candidates do not find themselves at any disadvantage to the recruitment from outside sources.
Open communication about staffing policy, procedures, and practices ensure a high morale of employees.

(iv) Leading (Directing)
The term „directing‟ is being quickly replaced by leading as the former has been monopolized by statutes referring to members of the board of directors whereas the term „leading‟ does not suffer from such deficiency. Leadership qualities are required at all levels. Seniors can lead their subordinates in developing efficient and effective methods of doing work.
Good communicators tell their subordinates only „what‟ to do and their deputies invariably surprise them with their ingenuity by devising „how‟ those tasks may be performed.

(v) Controlling
Management is a profession of control. An average manager spends a great deal of his time in controlling the progress of job against the original planning goals and objectives. This involves progressing and following up during execution, reviewing and monitoring by discussing with the persons concerned with a view to discovering tomorrow‟s problems today and doing something about them now.
Measuring and creating reports and communicating them to the concerned persons in a regular manner form the essence of the process of control. Feedback communications become the lines for communication, coordination,and control.

Communication is key to „success‟

Communication is key to „success‟

Communication skills spell S-U-C-C-E-S-S for everyone including the firm that acquires these skills:

S Self-awareness
U Understanding others
C Caring for others
C Choosing the right words, phrases and idioms
E Esteem of self
S Self-confidence
S Sharing with others

Communication skills „impress‟

Communication skills „impress‟

It is a set of personal skills that transform ones‟ personality. Effective communication skills enable a person to „impress‟ as the acronym elaborates:

I Idea
M Message
P Pause
R Receiver
E Empathy
S Sender
S Security concerns

Thus to impress others especially ones‟ subordinates, peers and seniors, managers/leaders have a duty to themselves – to improve their intra-personal communication skills. Only they can help and no one else can undertake this self-improvement regime on their behalf. Experience has confirmed that these skills are largely acquired and are not inborn.

STRATEGIC RELEVANCE OF COMMUNICATION

STRATEGIC RELEVANCE OF COMMUNICATION

Homo sapiens, as a species, have progressed faster than any other animal species solely because human beings have learned to communicate and cooperate better for the mutual betterment of mankind. Among the fruits of these unrelenting efforts to improve, human beings have successfully won the challenges of time, distance and speed and have acquired the ability to communicate across communities, countries, and continents.

Following ideas, proverbs and quotations provide the proof, if it is needed, to highlight the role of communication in our civilization:

1. Communication is a key to success and advancement
2. Communication is not a quick fix; it is a journey.
3. The verbal edge is the winning edge.
4. What you say or write is you.
5. All progress means war with society.
6. The finest eloquence is that which gets things done.
7. Communication is the glue that holds an organization together
8. Communication is the life-blood of an organization
9. Top executives need to communicate most of the time
10. It is not enough to have a strategy; communicating it to everyone is the real challenge

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD COMMUNICATION

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD COMMUNICATION

Communication is directly influenced by the ability to articulate issues concisely and convey to receivers in words and phrases they are familiar with so as to persuade them to the intended course of action. It is, therefore, a powerful skill to cultivate. Following checklist comprising of 7 Cs and 4 Ss should serve as good guideline for budding managers and leaders:

 Seven Cs of communication

(i) Completeness
Complete messages achieve the desired results without having to incur additional time and expenses is seeking clarifications and getting piece-meal replies. Complete messages from the sender help to build his image, goodwill and credibility. It saves time and cost. Following guidelines are useful:
 Check 5Ws (What, When, Where, Who and Why) and IH (How) of the message
 Answer all questions raised meticulously
 Give some extra information rather than holding it back

(ii) Conciseness
Conciseness is saying message in the fewest words without sacrificing understanding by the receivers. It is the opposite of wordiness or verbosity. By eliminating unwanted words, importance and emphasis of messages is increased. Remember that „brevity is the soul of wit‟. Following guidelines would serve better:
 Omit hackneyed expressions
 Avoid repetition and long winding sentences
 Include relevant facts but with courtesy
 Organize message logically and effectively

(iii) Consideration
Always prepare message keeping receivers in mind. Ideally, senders should put themselves in receivers‟ position and then visualize their needs and wants. Thereafter, they would be able to craft messages that are more in tune with receivers‟ requirements. One should gift wrap whatever one wants to say or write. This requires an attitude, empathy and human touch. It leads to better understanding of the human nature. Following directions should be useful:
 Focus on „you‟ instead of „I‟ or „we‟
 Highlight benefits of the message to the receiver
 Emphasize positive and pleasant aspects of facts
 Imbibe integrity in to the message

(iv) Concreteness
The message should be specific, definite and vivid. Communicators should conscientiously avoid vague and general statements. Some good rules to follow are:
 Choose vivid and image building words in the message
 Use direct and action verbs
 Use specific facts and figures

(v) Clarity
Special efforts are required to see that messages getting across are fully understood by receivers although they may not have identical experience, education and opinions. Every individual has a unique mental filter that gives different meanings to messages although the text is the same. Following tips will be useful:
 Always choose short, familiar and conversational words and phrases
 Endeavour to achieve appropriate lengths for sentences and paragraphs
 Support the message with examples, illustrations and audio-visuals

(vi) Courtesy
Courtesy comes from ones‟ innate desire to respect others. Courtesy brings in new friends and strengthens old friendships. However, one has to develop a „you-attitude‟ and being sensitive to others. A few good rules are:
 Omit expressions that hurt, are irritating and be-little
 Apologize in good faith
 Answer mail regularly and properly
 Be appreciative, thoughtful and honestly factual

(vii) Correctness
Messages done in a perfect way grammatically may fail to achieve their purpose because receivers found them insulting, humiliating and overbearing. Correctness can be ensured by adopting following rules:
 Using correct level of language in tune with the receivers
 Incorporating only accurate data and evidence
 Choosing the right words, phrases and sentences
 Organizing matter systematically into paragraphs of appropriate size

ORGANIZATIONAL BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

ORGANIZATIONAL BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Organization structures of firms are designed to support company‟s objectives. Besides, organizations prescribe systems – a set of policies, procedures, and norms of behavior (code of conduct) to reinforce the achievement of corporate objectives. These are further supplemented by a comprehensive system of performance appraisals, rewards and punishment. A few major organizational barriers are:


(1) Organizational policy
Policies underpin strategy and facilitate their implementation. Organizational policy should support the flow of information in all directions – external and internal communication covering downward, upwards and horizontal communications. If the flow of communication is not supported by firms‟ policy, it will not be smooth and adequate for the healthy functioning of the organization.

(2) Organizational rules and regulations
Some rules and regulations of the firm may come in the way of free flow of communication and may require the provision of proper channels of communication. Such rules and procedures may inhibit the flow of communication and need to be updated to bring them in line with the demands of strategies and their accomplishment.

(3) Status relationship
Greater the difference in the level of status of the functionaries, greater is the possibility of the breakdown of communication between them. If a person has to be frequently interacting with senior personnel, his job gradation needs to be reviewed.

(4) The complexity of organization structure
Tall organizations comprising of many layers of organization structure, delay flow of messages from sender to the receiver. It increases the risk of distortion of the message en route. In such firms, usually, upwards communication suffers very badly.

(5) Organizational facilities
Firms must provide facilities for meeting and conference rooms, complaint/suggestion schemes etc. They should encourage open door policies by senior managers and executives. Companies should also organize gatherings for social, cultural and sports activities as they also contribute to the better flow of information at both informal and formal levels.

GROUP BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATIONS contd...

GROUP BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATIONS

Inattentive listening
If the receiver is preoccupied with something else and is concerned with other issues, he may fail to react to the message, talk, bulletin, notice or circular. Since the receiver is not able to give sufficient attention, the message may fail to register in his mind.

 The loss during transmission of the message
A message that has to pass through several layers of organization structure or many stages before it reaches the target may lose its accuracy. For oral messages, it is estimated that accuracy is lost at every stage of its transmission or relaying. Even in written messages, loss occurs because of differences in interpretation, meanings and translation.

 Loss of retention
Retaining messages in the memory is a difficult process. It applies to both oral and written messages that are circulated. However, if a copy of the written message is available, persons can refer to it again and again. It is said that people remember:
 10 % of what they read
 20 % of what they hear
 30 % of what they see
 50 % of what they see and hear
 70 % of what they say
 90 % of what they say as they perform the task

 Undue reliance on written words
Senders often place undue importance to written message. In spite of the message being well drafted and presented, it may fail to make the necessary impact because of lack of trust and confidence between the parties. Messages, apart from being very good, should be consonant with the organizations‟ purpose and employees‟ own interest.

 Distrust of the communicator
If the person who is sending the message is prone to frequently countermanding, it leads to delayed responses from recipients. Besides, they may not act enthusiastically, perhaps, because they are waiting for amendment to the original message!

 Failure to communicate
Arising from lethargy or any other reason, managers may fail to inform the concerned person(s). In such cases, even a subsequent message may not invoke the right response because of the missing link!

GROUP BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATIONS

GROUP BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATIONS

These are interpersonal barriers to communication. These occur at the level of interaction within a group of employees – members of a section, department or team having members from different specialist functions of the organization.

A few major barriers to communication are:

(1) Premature evaluation of the sender
This happens when the looks, dress or initial introduction to the subject in not impressive or up to the preconceived standard and receivers have done a premature evaluation of the sender. This can also happen when the credibility of the sender of the message is low. Such barriers stop the transfer of information as senders beget a sense of futility. Such barriers can be overcome by:
 Senders developing empathy for the receivers and modifying the message to make it more acceptable to them
 Receivers listening to the speakers free from prejudice and commitment

Barriers at the level of subordinates

Barriers at the level of subordinates

These are:
(i) Unwillingness to communicate
As a rule, if an employee feels giving information may be embarrassing, he would not divulge it or would delay its flow as much as possible. They often modify the information so as to protect their interests. Wrong information can be very misleading too. Wrong information is worse than no information.
(ii) Lack of proper incentive
Lack of motivation comes in the way of the flow of information up or down the lines of command and control. Similarly, if good suggestions from subordinates are ignored or do not evoke enough response or attention, it has a snowballing effect in the organization. Subordinates do not feel enthused about giving suggestions for improvement of products, processes, and systems. This has been the main reason for the dismal failure of suggestion schemes in USA, Europe, and India.

Barriers at the levels of seniors

Barriers at the levels of seniors

These could be:
(i) The attitude of the seniors
If the attitude of the seniors is not helpful either owing to lack of awareness or because of personal agenda, messages will not flow freely to or from them unlike what should happen in a well-lubricated organization structure.
(ii) Insistence on a proper channel of communication
Some seniors like to stay within the confines of the lines of communication as depicted in a formal organization chart. They do not like bypassing these lines of communication and think that these would amount to thwarting of their authority
(iii) Fear of challenges to their authority
Some seniors tend to hoard information going down / up as it may disclose their weaknesses. They may also think if they do not share the information, they would become more important.
(iv) Lack of confidence in the subordinates
Some seniors perceive their subordinates to be less competent and do not like the information going downwards for the risk of its leakage and misuse.
(v) Ignoring communication
Some seniors ignore the information from their subordinates deliberately in order to maintain their importance. This can create a barrier in the minds of subordinates who may loathe providing information to seniors.
(vi) Lack of time
Some seniors are overburdened with work and consequently have no time to provide information downwards, upwards or horizontally.
(vii) Lack of awareness
Some seniors do not appreciate the critical importance and significance of maintaining a smooth flow of information in all directions within and outside of the organization. This also acts as a blocker of the flow of communication in the organization.

Barriers at the individual level

Barriers at the individual level

These are the obstructions caused in the process of sending and receiving messages during the encoding or decoding of ideas, words, and phrases. In most languages, a word has different meanings, depending upon the context in which it is used. Each word has many synonyms but which one is the most suitable in the given situation, is always an issue. These are known as semantic barriers and may take the following forms:

(i) Badly expressed message
 Lack of clarity
 Lack of precision
 Poorly chosen words and phrases
 Careless omissions
 Lack of coherence
 Poor organization of ideas
 Use of jargons
 Inadequate vocabulary
 Awkward sentence structure

(ii) Assumptions not clarified
Messages are normally based on some assumptions that, if not communicated to the receiver, may lead to incomplete message or wrong interpretation of the message.

(iii) Faulty translation
Messages must use words and phrases that the receiver is familiar with so that he can understand and respond to them. This calls for a great mastery and flexibility in the use of language on the part of the sender. In the absence of a suitable choice of vocabulary, the message may not invoke the desired response from the receiver.

(iv) Use of specialist language
Each specialist uses a lingua that is peculiar to that profession. For example, MBAs use a different language that an engineer and a technician use a different language that an ordinary workman. Illiterates use a different language that the educated. Similarly, city dwellers use different words and phrases than village folks. These act as roadblocks for effective communication among them.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Barriers to communication arise from the inherent process involved in sending and /
or receiving messages among human beings. Imperfections creep in from:
 Different levels of thinking of individuals
 Different mental filters arising from individual mental filters conditioned by their knowledge, experience, and opinions
 Less than perfect mastery over the language of expression
 The inadequacy of the language
 Limitations arising from bounded rationality
This has been beautifully captured by one of our folklores – there always exists a vicious triangle in each individual so much so that it is an integral part of ones‟ being. The triangle has three apexes – Thinking (Vichar), Saying (Upchar) and Doing (Achar).
 What we think, we do not say (Human inadequacy, imperfect language, and insufficient linguistic capability)
 What we say, we do not do (Semantic and psychological deficiencies)

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Communication is a vast subject; it stands for connectivity and networking in its broadest sense. In the context of an enterprise, business communication is the process of influencing others to achieve common, shared objectives. Communication is a two-way process and is completed only when the feedback is received by the sender. Information flow is a one-way process.

Communication can be verbal covering oral and written form and non-verbal that uses a large number of signs, signals, gestures, expressions, and sounds. As learning about the non-verbal communication increases, it is changing the way people look at both the oral and written communications. Everyone seems to be communicating all the time especially during waking hours. By mastering the art of observing and interpreting body language and related aspects of communication, everyone can become a better communicator!

Business communication is not only a lifeblood of an organization but also the heart of its internal and external communications. Effective communication skills form a vital part of a job requirement, are prerequisite for promotion to higher positions and are essential to all problem-solving. They ignite enthusiasm, enhance motivation and hone traits of leadership. Communication skills are also advantageous in personal life and community work. They enhance will work, skill to work and thrill to work. They promote joy at work, impart satisfaction and happiness.

A deeper understanding of the process of the inward and outward journey at the senders‟ and receivers‟ end goes a long way in students‟ ability to draft and deliver effective messages. The six-stage model of business communication would enable them to gain a deeper knowledge of the subject and acquire more effectiveness in communication skills – the strategic asset they must possess before they can move in to senior corporate positions.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS-Outward journey

COMMUNICATION PROCESS-Outward journey

When an individual has the need to communicate with others, the process starts with the happenings in the brain of the sender who is already subjected to a lot of experiences, emotions, knowledge, and opinions.
(i) Retrieval of information from human memory
This is very much like pulling a file from the filing cabinet. Since it is in response to a need, the file pulled out may not always be the one most appropriate to the stimuli. This may bring in variations in interpreting the message received.
(ii) Choosing the right words and phrases
This stage is highly subjective and is greatly influenced by the mastery of the sender over the language used for communication. Besides, linguistic competence extends to the proper use of the form of verbs, adjectives, adverbs etc
(iii) Delivery of a message
Role of the sender continues to be important as the style, speed and manner of speaking decide the impact of the message. The body language and ability of the sender to throw his voice towards the audience form the major part of the message delivered.
(iv) Sources of distraction
Once again, the message passes through a medium that may have one or several sources of distraction, impairing the message as received by the communicatee.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS-INWARD JOURNEY

COMMUNICATION PROCESS-INWARD JOURNEY

Influence of sources of distraction

If one is hearing music, even a small level of noise can be very disparaging – no wonder, music recording studious are noise proof. Similarly, speech delivered in noisy circumstances can be very difficult to understand and absorb. Noisy classrooms can be lethal for good learning. Even visuals placed in noisy room fail to make the impact they are intended to. Similarly, listeners may miss many cues from the body language that normally forms a major chunk of the message being delivered. A shabbily dressed person cannot make as good an impression as a well-dressed one.
If there are too many distractions behind or beside the speaker, the message may fall flat. The situation is similar to a young man has gone to see a bride at a place where there are many more beautiful girls present, finds very difficult to decide!

Receiving information from the brain

When information arrives at the brain, it passes through a kind of sieve that separates out difficult, strange or awkward words and simplifies them into familiar words. This is a part of the process of abstraction that takes place before the message is classified and stored

Searching for similar material in the brain memory

This is the second part of the process of abstraction that goes on in the brain – it is somewhat like classifying the message before storing. Once this search is completed, the material is stored next to the similar stuff already in the memory. Rarely, one can get identical material and one should be happy to get as near to the one in memory as possible. If it is totally new or alien material, it may not be possible to retrieve it when required!

 Storing the material in the brain

This is a complex stage. Needless to say that human memory is still the fastest to retrieve and recall. Owing to overload or bounded rationality, there is always a limit to what and how much can be stored in the human memory. This faculty or capacity to store also varies widely among individuals and has a significant influence on ones‟ competence to communicate.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Inward journey

(i) As received by senses
A human being perceives the world around him from spoken words, written words, visuals and cues from body language in terms of sounds, gestures, expressions, signs, signals etc through the five human senses of seeing, smelling, hearing, tasting and touching.
These are the external five senses – our antennas. However, ultimately senses only capture feelings, images etc and convey them to the human brain which is the main receptacle of what is perceived by the five senses. That is why it is said that it is not the eyes that see but the brain; it is not the nose that smells, it is the brain; it is not the ears that hear, it is the brain; it is not the tongue that tastes, it is the brain and it is not the skin or hands that feel, it is the brain.

All that is captured by the human senses from environments are far from ideal i.e., without noise or distractions. On the contrary, all kinds of distractions intervene and messages transmitted to the brain are far from perfect.
Additionally, there is also the problem of the sensitivity of the senses. How sensitized they vary very widely from one person to another. Someone remembers a scene from a movie very vividly after many years and another person cannot recall the scene from a movie seen a few minutes ago. Some people can detect a smell from long distance while others would not notice it even when they are passing beside its source. Some singers can hear a small variation in a note very clearly while others cannot. Thus this process of perceiving is very heavily dependent upon the faculty of receivers. Human beings vary widely in their ability to perceive different sensual inputs.

Communication skills are;

Communication skills are;

 advantageous in personal life
As private citizens, individuals take part in a lot of activities like sports, club work, social work, community work etc. People also participate in other social, cultural and religious activities. If they are good communicators, they get noticed quickly and can be appointed or nominated to many such activist groups. Before long, they become a well-known and prominent member of the community.

 hone leadership traits
From the foregoing discussions, it is easy to understand that all leaders in business, industry or political arena, have notably better skills in communication. They are able to deliver informative and persuasive speeches to the audience at large. They are able to draw up, compose and distribute the most effective posters, banners, and circulars. Thus effective communication skills propel them to positions of leadership.

 Dividends from effective communication skills
Communication skills have come to be recognized as an integral part of one‟s upbringing and personality. His choice of words and phrases and their use is quite unique to him and can directly give clues to his personality.
In the modern age of knowledge society when education, training, and skills are being formally taught, communication skills have become of critical importance in everyday life. It is said that it is no use having brilliant ideas if one cannot put them across properly, accurately and lucidly.

Communication skills

Communication skills 

essential for promotion, problem-solving, ignite enthusiasm&enhance motivation

Communication skills have emerged as the most critical prerequisite for promotion to senior executive positions in the industry. Consequently, managers at lower rungs of organizations should also have good command over the spoken and written language of the business. As a general rule, managers should have the ability to make their communications heard, read or understood.
Individuals who have had a quick rise to senior level positions, attribute it to their being good in conversation and in articulating topical issues besides being very good in written communications - be it in writing persuasive letters or producing concise and compelling reports.

A person can become a good communicator only when he is a clear and systematic thinker. Acquiring effective communication skills adds to one‟s self-esteem and confidence. This helps managers to be able to collect relevant information and get around people quickly that are essential prerequisites for any problem-solving effort.

If a person is able to articulate viewpoint of the group he belongs to, it enthuses him because he becomes the automatic choice as their representative. The person becomes more spirited and involved and his group activities increase manifolds. People rally around such persons more readily and they progress into more important roles.

People who have good oral or written communication skills usually develop into very good listeners. Listening to others leads to added learning that influences their attitude and behavior. It goes a long way in re-orienting their mindset towards work and enhancing their performance. Such persons become more aligned to firm‟s objectives and are motivated to accomplish them.

Communication skills as a vital job requirement

Communication skills as a vital job requirement

Human beings are communicating all the time. Ability to express powerfully and influence the attitude and behavior of people for giving better performance on their jobs has emerged as a job skill of critical importance for managers/leaders at all levels of management. Thus all employees are expected to:
1 Write good correspondence
2 Be good in oral conversation
3 Develop and cultivate powerful body language
4 Be able to sell ideas and products effectively
5 Be very good in weaning away customers from a competitor and retaining them
It is now increasingly understood that even specialists like accountants, engineers, technicians etc should have good communication skills. In the present day knowledge society, competitive advantage of acquiring excellent communication skills cannot and perhaps need not be emphasized!

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION-External communication

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION-External communication

As a business enterprise in the modern society, it has to interact, pro-actor reacts to happenings in other institutions viz.
 Government bodies, statutory/regulatory agencies, municipal authorities etc
 Distributors, dealers, and retailers
 Customers, community and society at large
Reputed organizations are concerned about their public image, goodwill, and trust. In order to further reinforce their reputation, they participate in a number of activities:
 Public speeches by senior executives
 Tactful responses to comments and criticisms in the media
 Preparation and distribution of informative pamphlets about the firm
 Marketing communications or advertisement/publicity
 Production and dissemination of product catalogs, videos etc
Because of their importance, these activities are centralized in the Public Relations and Corporate Communications department of large corporations. These activities have emerged as specialist skills of critical importance to the well being of the company. Successful messaging can:
 Eliminate unnecessary correspondence
 Save time and expense
 Build favorable impression in public mind
 Enhance reputation and goodwill
 Help increase company profits and profitability

Internal communication

Internal communication

Before the end of the nineteenth century, businesses were small; they started growing in size from the beginning of the twentieth century. Contemporary business enterprises are very large and have not only become multinational but also transnational in character. Besides, they have grown in complexity in terms of a wide array of products and services they deal in and the number of countries and continents they are operating in. Also, arising from the liberalizing of many national economies, global competition has intensified and the rate of change in the marketplace has accelerated. Market forces have also become very dynamic, almost verging on chaos.

With business becoming very large in size, complex in nature and rapidly changing dynamics, enterprises must put in place effective internal communication so that everyone can be kept informed of happenings within the large corporation. It is the only way managers/leaders can build understanding among people located in far-off communities, countries, and continents – stringing them together into a beautiful necklace that everyone can be proud of.

Communication

Communication is the lifeblood of an organization

An organization cannot function without people interacting, conversing or corresponding with one another. All enterprises require human beings working for it or with it, to:
 Interact and react
 Make assumptions about future or forecast future events
 Plan or draw up a rough blueprint for the future
 Organize/design a format of how to get resources together to achieve the plan
 Staff or gather / recruit people and get them to desired locations
 Lead or direct people, and devise their jobs so as to adhere to the plan
 Exchange information, ideas, plans and proposals
 Measure and monitor
 Coordinate and control
Communication has been described as the „glue‟ that holds the entire organization together as one entity. Without communication, managers/leaders are not able to influence the attitude and behaviour of people to achieve common objectives.

Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication uses signs, signals, gestures, expressions, and sounds. It is God-made language and, as a rule, should not suffer from any limitations excepting the fact that our knowledge about the language is limited by our lack of understanding of nature‟s ways of communication! In common parlance, non-verbal communication is also called body language. As a rule, it does not lie or mislead unless someone has mastered the art of deceit or camouflaging. It is the richest language known. During the last few decades, a lot of research has been done to identify and isolate all the signs, signals, gestures, expression and sounds among humans.

The non-verbal communication has changed the way we look at the subject of communication. We seem to be communicating all the time through gestures, expressions, sounds, signs, and signals.
Everyone can recall the personal experience they would have gone through when they had to ask for a favor from mother, father, elder brother or even boss. When they went to speak to the person on the appointed date and time, one quick look at the person made them change their mind, thinking that the day and time was not propitious for seeking favor because of the mood he was emoting. The interaction would have been very upsetting but they could avoid it because they could observe from the body language of the person that the response would not be favorable.

Similarly, it is said that we emote even when we are asleep! We have also read a story in Mahabharata that Abhimanyu, son of Arjun, had picked up the art of entering a kind of warfare known as Chakarvyu while in the womb of his mother. It has been thought to be rather an unbelievable phenomenon. The recent advances in medical history confirm that a child has already well developed five senses and mind as early as the seventh week of its conception when even mothers may not have become aware of their pregnancy!

Another thing students must appreciate is the body language is not man-made; it is God‟s own creation. Studies are directed to observing those gestures, expressions, sounds etc and record their meaning for its students to understand the language. Body language rarely lies and if one can master it, it will propel them on a fast track to become good communicators.

Another well-known story common in India is that good vid of ayurvedic medicines were able to diagnose the type of ailment from the feel of the pulse and general examination of their patients!

Verbal communication

Verbal communication

Verbal communication happens through the use of words. It must be understood that communicator has to depend on the language that has been designed, developed and propagated by humans. As a result, it suffers from a lot of limitations despite the fact that some languages of the world are very developed and command a vast vocabulary.
Verbal Communication, in turn, can be further divided into two groups:
(i) Oral Communication
Oral communications are the messages that come through words, phrases, and idioms from the mouth of the speaker. His appearance, mannerism, body language and the way he throws his voice can make a significant difference in impacting the audience, their attitude, and performance.
It is a very convenient form of expression and presentation. It is almost instantaneous, quick and least expensive.
(ii) Written Communication
This requires preparation and can be thought out properly before committing in writing. It takes time and is expensive. However, it is more accurate and is the norm for technical, legal and most diplomatic communications.
With an increase in the size of organizations, their complexity, and dynamism, many times written communication is the only way to communicate. With technological advancement in our ability to send/receive emails, fax messages, short messaging service (SMS) on mobile phones, instant messaging etc, written messages have become very common and popular.
Ability to send online reports across continents has won the race against time and distance. It is significantly influencing the way people shall do business in the twenty-first century.

Information as a one-way process

Information as a one-way process

Information flow is another related process. Information is knowledge; it comes from the processing of raw data which records the events as they take place in every minuscule of an organization or an institution. Knowledge is power. The flow of information is considered to be an extremely powerful tool at the disposal of men at all levels of a business enterprise.
However, the difference between communication and information flows must be understood clearly. Whereas communication is a two-way process, information is a one-way process. It is, therefore, half of the process. Yet it is used very extensively in organizations. As businesses grow in size, complexity, and dynamics, it is very difficult to ensure two-way process all the time. Much of the time, information flows one way – downwards, upwards or horizontal along formal lines of command. These lines of command become the channels of information flows and serve as the cornerstones of communication, coordination, and control.

Communication as a two-way process

Communication as a two-way process

Communication is a complete process - it starts with communicators sending messages to receivers, the „communicates‟. An experienced sender of the message, whether oral or written, would think of the audience as his customer. He would try to gauge or guess the kind of level of communication the receiver is comfortable with. Thereafter, he would craft his message in a manner and in the language, words, phrases, and idioms that the receiver is familiar with. Each receiver of the message is really a customer whose needs and wants should be as well known to the sender as it happens in a marketplace. Obviously, like the sender who chooses words, phrases, and idioms from his vocabulary depending on own learning, experience and exposure, the receiver also has his own mental filter that is the product of his learning, experience, and exposure. To absorb the message in his mind, he does the abstraction of the message into words, phrases, and idioms that he is familiar with or has command over. This leads to his formulating his response to the message received. Once again, it goes through the mind filter and ultimately comes out of the communicatee and starts its return journey to the sender of the message. It conveys back what is understood by the receiver.
A sensitive speaker is able to judge the reaction of his audience from the gestures, sounds, and expressions of the audience – the way they sit, the way they yawn or the way they twitter their fingers etc. It is thus a complete cycle because it is a two-way process. Until the full process has been gone through the process of communication is considered to be incomplete.

Communication and Power

Communication and Power

Communication is also the most powerful input resource in an enterprise. The various resources, just to recount, are as below:
1 Men
2 Money
3 Materials
4 Machines
5 Methods
6 Management
7 Measurement
8 Message covering both information and communication flows
9 Motive Power
10 Motivational Leadership
Messaging has emerged as the most important resource for, without it, nothing can be transacted anywhere. It is the lifeline of any society. It is the glue that holds companies, communities, and countries together.
There is another process that is also used to influence others – it is the use of authority or power. They say if a person has the power it shows because it quickly shows his influence or holds on others‟ opinion. However, it must be understood in its proper perspective. Power has been described as „a process of influencing others to do something that, left to themselves, they will not do‟. This process is, then, quite different from that of communication where we influence others as equals - members of the family, members of the inter-departmental teams or customers or fellow members of an association. The process of communication is greatly dependent on the skill of individuals who, as equal members, are in a position to influence others so as to compel, propel or impel them to work together to achieve common goals!

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Communication as a subject of study has a very vast canvas. To different people, communication implies various areas of study, research, and application:

(1) It is a means of transportation from one place to another viz., moving men, machines, materials etc by surface transport like railways, roadways or by air or by sea. It is not uncommon to describe a region or a country backward in terms of means of communication because it is not serviced or well connected by railways, roadways, airways or seaways.

(2) It also relates to means of sending/receiving messages, packets or parcels through the post, telephone, telegram, radio, wireless or Internet. These means of communications have undergone rapid changes during the last few decades. Postal services have been revolutionized by courier services – same-day delivery, next-day delivery etc. Telephone services have become commonplace – one can talk to a person anywhere even one orbiting in a satellite without shouting. The mobile telephony and use of the Internet have changed the way people talk and communicate with one another. They are changing the way business is done.

(3) Communication is a major focus of attention for artists – singers, dancers, actors, painters, sculptors etc are all trying to communicate with their audiences. They endeavor to win their attention and appreciation so as to secure attractive returns for their efforts.

In a managerial or business context, it is the science and art of communicating. Etymologically, communication as a word is derived from the word „common‟ in English or „Communis‟ from Latin. It means „shared by‟ or „concerning all‟. This communication is a process of „influencing others‟ to achieve common, shared objectives. These goals could be that of individuals, families, teams, departments/functions and companies.

Communication has emerged as a very powerful personal skill that individuals must acquire to be able to perform their duties and become effective managers and effective leaders.

Conflict Resolution Skills

Conflict Resolution Skills

Occasionally as a leader in an organization, you will be in a position where you will
need to deal with the conflict between two or more people. When that occurs, you will
need some skills/knowledge to deal with it effectively. Below are a few simple ideas.
• Do not take sides.
• Do not allow yourself to become emotionally involved.
• Assume from the beginning that all participants have legitimate positions.
• Listen quietly no matter how unreasonable or violent the remarks are.
• Judging is not your task — the listener’s role is not that of the reformer, so
avoid “I’m right, you’re wrong”.
• Allow all expression and emotions to be voiced without any interference
or negative reaction on the listener’s part.
• Listen with all your senses to understand whether a person is really conveying
one message but meaning to convey something else.
• Avoid interrupting or arguing.
• Remember the importance of individual differences.
• Be wary of telling your own personal experiences or using yourself as an
example — listen instead.
• Being told “everyone feels that way” makes it seem that you think this
“immediate and crucial catastrophic predicament” is rather common and
insignificant.
• Be aware of your biases and/or prejudices in relating to groups or individuals
whose personalities may clash with your own.
• If the participants can’t possibly talk to each other, have them talk separately
with you.
• Don’t be afraid to clarify a point:

Positive-Sum, Negative Sum and Zero-Sum Situations

Positive-Sum, Negative Sum and Zero-Sum Situations

Based on the outcomes of a dispute or negotiation, conflicting situations can also be
classified as zero-sum, positive-sum and negative-sum conflicts.

In a zero-sum situation, it is inevitable that if one party gains some advantage, the
other party suffers a corresponding loss. These situations arise when a “fixed pie” is
to be distributed between two parties. For example, if there is only one job with two
people vying for it, one person will get it and the other person will not. One job won and
one job lost equals zero. The gains and losses add up to zero.

In positive-sum situations, gain for one party does not necessarily mean a corresponding
loss to the other party. There is additional sum available to be distributed
between the contending parties and gain for one person or party by the equivalent
additional sum does not mean a corresponding loss to other contending person or
party. The gains and losses add up to greater than zero.

Negative-sum situations are characterized by a shrinking pie. There are no gains to
be distributed but only losses to be reduced. If the actual loss is less than the expected
loss, the differential is treated as a gain. If a department is expecting a 10% cut in the
budgetary allocation but if the actual cut is only 5%, the gain to the department is 5%.
Handbook on Conflict Management Skills

Functional & Dysfunctional Conflicts

Functional & Dysfunctional Conflicts

Sometimes a conflict can act as a positive force within an organization, while at other
times it can act as a negative force. Accordingly, conflicts are classified as Functional
and Dysfunctional. Functional conflict acts as a positive force that is the occurrence
and resolution of conflict may stimulate the organization to constructive problem-solving.
It may also lead people to look for ways of productively altering how they do things.
The conflict-resolution process can ultimately be a stimulus for positive change within
an organization

Dysfunctional conflict acts as a negative force, that is, the occurrence and resolution
of conflict may result in a digression of efforts from goal attainment and result in
the squandering of productive resources of the organization. Conflicting workplace ideas,
attitudes, and actions may lead to anger, tension, and anxiety. Deep hostilities and
lasting conflicts may eventually lead to violent behavior among employees.
Therefore, it would only be fair to say that conflict may sometimes be advantageous
and at other times destructive. Workplace managers must be sensitive to the
consequences of conflict. These consequences range from negative outcomes (such
as loss of skilled employees, sabotage, low quality of work, stress and even violence)
to positive outcomes (such as creative alternatives, increased motivation and
commitment, high quality of work, and personal satisfaction).

Levels of Conflict

Levels of Conflict

Based on the level of intensity or emotional response it provokes, conflicts can be
classified as – Discomforts, Incidents, Misunderstandings, Tension, Huge Crisis.

• Discomfort: The conflict has not yet clearly manifested itself, but has declared
its onset with palpable signs of discomfort. One does not feel comfortable about
a situation, but is not quite sure why? It is difficult to identify precisely what the
problem is.

• Incidents: A short, sharp exchange has occurred without any lasting internal
reaction. Some unpleasant incident has occurred between people that have left
one upset or irritated.

• Misunderstandings: Here motives and facts are often confused or
misperceived. Thoughts keep returning frequently toward the problem.

• Tension: Here relationships are weighed down by negative attitudes and fixed
opinions. The way one feels about and regards the other person/s has significantly
changed for the worse. The relationship is a constant source of worry
and concern.

• Crisis: Behaviour is affected, normal functioning becomes difficult, extreme
gestures are contemplated or executed. One is dealing with a major event like
a possible rupture in a relationship which entails grave consequences.

Life-Cycle of a Conflict

Life-Cycle of a Conflict

A conflict is not a static situation, but a dynamic one. It is a process, taking time to
evolve. The intensity level differs over the life-cycle of a conflict.  to understand how, where and when to apply different and appropriate strategies and measures of conflict management.

• Life-cycle 1. Beginning: A conflict begins to take form as the differences
surface between the conflicting parties, and people begin to take sides. There
is a clear delineation of people in terms of ‘us’ and ‘them’.

• Life-cycle 2. Early growth: The conflicting parties express their hostility openly.
Each side increases its demands, and its sense of grievance swells. Each side
looks for allies and seeks their moral support.

• Life-cycle 3. Deadlock: Each of the conflicting parties regards itself as having
a just cause and it could lead to two possible situations: (a) a stalemate causing
hurt or loss to one party or (b) ‘a mutually-hurting stalemate’ caused by exhaustion
of strength and resources on the part of both the parties.

• Life-cycle 4. Looking for a way out: When the conflict reaches a stage where
both parties suffer losses, they look for a way out of the impasse. This may
necessitate mediation and arbitration by a third party.

• Life-cycle 5. Settling the dispute or resolving the conflict? Settlement
implies a compromise or temporary truce by both the parties over the dispute.

But, seldom does it lead to a solution in which the two parties can collaborate
resolving the conflict. Conflict resolution, on the other hand, looks at the
underlying causes of the conflict and deals with them, so that the conflict does
not recur in future.

Nature & Structure of Conflict - A Model

Nature & Structure of Conflict - A Model

A conflict has characteristics of its own, and it is possible to analyze its structure and
behavior. A simple model to easily understand the structure of conflicts is provided by
C.R.Mitchell in his book “The Structure of International Conflict.” Though the model
was created to describe political and military conflicts in an international scenario, it is
also equally well applicable to the complex conflict situations between individuals in
an office or organizational environment.
According to C.R.Mitchell, conflict structure consists of three parts: attitudes, behavior
and situations and the interaction among these three parts create conflicts between
individuals or groups.
According to Mitchell:
1. The situation impacts behavior – failure to reach targeted goals creates
frustration and prompts people to strive to reach those goals.
2. The situation impacts attitudes – incompatible goals increase the suspicion
and distrust between the people.
3. Behavior impacts the situation – success can introduce new questions in the
conflict as demands increases.
4. Behavior impacts attitudes – destruction increases hatred, success can impact
the group solidarity and the notion of “us”.
5. Attitudes impact behavior – expectations such as “our traditional enemies will
attack again” will impact the defensive planning and preventive actions.
6. Attitudes impact the situation – the longer the conflict continues, the more questions
will be introduced.
Mitchell contends that conflicts are caused by mixed-motive relationships where both
the involved parties have cooperative and competitive goals. The competitive element
creates conflict and the cooperative element creates incentives to negotiate an
agreement.

Understanding a Conflict

Understanding a Conflict

It is also important for the individuals to understand the underlying differences that
distinguish the concepts of conflict resolution, conflict management, and conflict
prevention.
1. Conflict Resolution means eliminating the conflict by arriving at a mutually
beneficial outcome. In other words, conflict resolution refers to the resolution of
the underlying causes of conflict and mutual acceptance of each of the contending
parties.
2. Conflict Management means limitation or mitigation of a conflict, without
necessarily solving it, so that the work process is not disrupted.
3. Conflict Prevention implies anticipation of a possible conflict and taking
measures beforehand to ensure that the conflict does not arise.

When conflict is understood, it is easier to find ways to predict it, prevent it, transform
it and resolve it.individuals must consider the work environment and anticipate possible
conflicts that are likely to arise in the workplace to take timely corrective actions
beforehand and to transform these conflict situations into opportunities for positive
outcomes. They should ask themselves and reflect on:

• What are the key sources and areas of conflict in the workplace?
• When do they generally tend to occur?
• How do people respond to the conflicts as they arise?
• Are there certain factors in the environment that make problems worse,
especially at times of conflict?
• Does the office provide channels for expressing normal problems and concerns?
When they solve problems, do they do so for the moment, or do they put in place
systems for addressing these types of problems if they recur?

Understanding a Conflict

Understanding a Conflict

What is a conflict? A conflict is the expression of disagreement between individuals or
groups that differ in attitudes, beliefs, values or needs, through which the parties involved
perceive a threat to their needs, interests or concerns. It can also originate from past
rivalries and personality differences. Other causes of conflict include trying to negotiate
before the timing is right or at a time before the needed information is available.

From the above definition, it is obvious that a conflict has the following components:

• A conflict is more than just a disagreement. It is a situation in which people
perceive a threat (physical, emotional, power, status, etc.) to their well-being

• A conflict is caused by the differences and clash of personalities – attitudes,
beliefs, values, and needs.

• A conflict arises when people try to make others change their actions or to gain
an unfair advantage.

• A conflict arises when one party refuses to accept the fact that the other party
holds something as a value rather than a preference.

• Participants in conflicts tend to respond on the basis of their perceptions of the
situation, rather than an objective review of it.

• Creative problem-solving strategies are essential to positive approaches to
conflict management.

Ten Tips to Effectively Influence Others

Ten Tips to Effectively Influence Others

1) Set an outcome for what the other person will do, if you are successful in
influencing him/her.
a) Flush out in detail what would really be ideal for you - even if you think there’s no way
that ideal is possible. At a minimum, you’ll know your own goals, and you are likely to
get closer to them than you think.
b) Consider the other person’s outcome(s). Are there ways you can include their goals
in your proposal? What are the benefits and costs to him/her in doing what you want?
Are there ways to enhance his/her benefits and/or lessen his/her costs that could still
get you what you want?
2) Aim high when you make the first suggestion(s). Suggesting that he/she does
even more than you might really want gives you room to lessen your suggestions, and
makes it more likely you’ll get closer to what you really want in the final agreement.
3) Be congruent, and confident as you communicate. Other people usually notice
(not always consciously) your body language and voice tone, so if you’re uncertain in
making suggestions, it’s likely that will come across.
In other words, be as certain of yourself and your suggestions as you can possibly be.
This doesn’t mean you need to be demanding or argumentative. It does mean that you
present your position and/or requests as if you are certain that this is what you want. A
quiet, solid, clear confidence is often your best attitude.
4) Consider your long-term relationship with this person or people.
What impact will the results of this interaction have over time? What will your relationship
with him/her be if your suggestions are implemented? What will it be like if the
suggestions are not implemented?
5) Begin where they are, that is, acknowledging that they have a particular
perspective that makes sense for them. This is best done by considering their
mood and/or attitude, as well as the particular position he/she may have at the beginning
of the discussion.
6) Consider the larger context. What factors might make it difficult for the person
to do what you want? Can you develop some ideas that would minimize these
difficulties, or better yet, turn them into advantages for him/her?
7) What might you be able to give the person ‘no strings attached’? This can be
information, and need not be anything physical (such as a gift). Giving something can
be a good move towards developing a favorable context, a move inviting reciprocity
but be perfectly willing to have your ‘gift’ taken, without expecting anything back. So, it
needs to be something you can give freely.
8) Be clear on what you would get if this person agreed to your request. That is,
what would you benefit of influencing them so that you get your outcome?
One way to determine your benefits is to ask yourself “What would have this done for
me?” When you get the first answer, ask yourself the same question about that answer.
You may determine a wider range of options that would satisfy you. This gives you
more flexibility in making suggestions and/or requests from the person.
9) Are there any changes you could make to the environment that would make
it more likely for the person to agree to your request?
This is intended as a thought-provoking question, i.e. to get you to think about factors
you might not ordinarily consider. For instance, there’s some evidence that people are
more likely to accommodate requests when they are eating (associating a pleasant
activity with your request). Hence the number of business deals that are completed
over lunch.
Another environmental factor when influencing someone is to consider whether to
discuss an issue on the phone, in person, or by e-mail. In many cases, you will get a
very different response to the same request, depending on how it is made.
Thinking of the environment in a slightly broader sense, for instance, could you,
persuade a colleague of the person to, say, be more cooperative. Perhaps this
increased cooperation would make it easier for the person to take your suggestions.
10) It goes without saying, of course, that when you are successful in
influencing, you’ll certainly live up to the agreements that you’ve made - both
during and after the ‘influence time’. These agreements should be implemented as the
other person understands them. This requires you to verify that your communication
has been understood in the same way you intended it.
The benefit to you is a long-term business relationship, in which you have established
your reliability and in which you request the same. Atmospheres in which you trust one
another makes better business sense for all.
A person may use this as a checklist before an attempt to influence someone else,
decide to go through the list and choose which would be the most useful in a particular
a situation, or use it as a test of which items could be missing from an ongoing attempt
at influence.
Source: Lynda L. Fudold, Advanced Communications Group

Persuasion Theories - Rank’s Model

Persuasion Theories - Rank’s Model

Rank’s model of persuasion states that persuaders use two major
strategies to achieve their goals.
These strategies are nicely set into two main schemes
known as (1) intensify, and (2) downplay.

The basic premise of the model is that people will either intensify or downplay certain
aspects of their own product, candidate, or ideology, or those of their receiver’s. The
Persuaders will do this in one of four methods.

• Intensify their strong points.
• Intensify the weak points of the opposition.
• Downplay their weak points.
• Downplay the strong points of the opposition.

Persuasion Theories - Information Manipulation Theory

Persuasion Theories - Information Manipulation Theory

A communicator overtly or covertly violates one of the conversational maxims of quantity, quality, relation and manner with the intention of deceiving his/her audience.

• ‘Quantity’ refers to a person’s expectations that a conversation will be as
informative as possible. We do not expect information to be left out.
• ‘Quality’ refers to a person’s expectation of being presented with information
that is truthful and complete.
• ‘Relation’ illustrates the expectation of contributing relevant information to a
conversation.
• ‘Manner’ relates to how things are said rather than what is said.
For example, the private secretary turns up late to the office. How will he/she answer
his boss for turning up late?
• Quantity: “I am so sorry Sir; I was caught up in a traffic jam caused by a political
rally.”
• Quality: “I overslept. Because I had forgotten to pay the electric bill, power got
cut off and my alarm clock didn’t go off.” “
• Relation: “I’ve just had a really bad week. My mom was in the hospital and was
discharged today morning only.”
• Manner: (said rolling eyes and looking disgusted): “I really started on time, but
was caught up in the traffic jam”

Information Manipulation Theory provides an explanation for and the multiple ways in
which deception can occur. However, it does not predict what maxims a person may
only violate that the violation will occur within the certain realm of possibilities provided.

Persuasion Theories - Reinforcement Theory 

Attitude changes result from an opinion change produced
through reinforcement in areas such as attention, comprehension, and acceptance.
Attention, comprehension, and acceptance are considered by the audience before a
new opinion is adopted. The message must be drawing attention and easily
understood. More importantly, it must be presented in a way that reinforces the idea’s
validity.
Here is an example of how reinforcement theory operates. A public relations practitioner
is conducting a week-long campaign for “Organ Donation Awareness Week”. S/he
conducts a pre-campaign phone survey providing positive reinforcement for pro-organ
donation answers for two groups and no reinforcement for the other two groups. All
groups have an opposing position to organ donation.
One group from each, reinforcement and no reinforcement, are in the target area of
the campaign. According to Reinforcement Theory, the people in the areas that received
the reinforcement and the campaign will have the greatest change in attitude toward
organ donation. The next should be the group that received the reinforcement without
the campaign closely followed by those who received the campaign but not the
reinforcement. The group with the least amount of attitudinal change would be those
who reached no reinforcement and did not receive the campaign.